Richters ProGrowers Info
Richters ProGrowers Info | |
Alfalfa
(Medicago sativa ) |
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Market
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Products:  (seeds, leaf, herb);  (herb, sprouts)
Market size: (excluding acreage planted for fodder): 12,000 hectares (world); 5,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices and acreage up
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Culture |
Seed density: 350 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained; pH 6.0-7.5
Crop duration: 1-4 years
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(herb) |
Sowing rate: 9-13kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring, broadcast or sow in rows, 15-30cm apart. Two or more cuts at bud stage possible; last cut 6 weeks before killing frost. Heavy potash and phosphorus feeder.
Yield: dry herb 8-10,000kg/ha (years 1-4).
Pests: weevil, leafminer, leafhopper, snout beetle
Diseases: verticillium wilt, leafspot, phytophthora root rot.
Buyers want: organic product.
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(sprouts) |
Planting: soak seeds overnight; drain, keep moist. Ready in 3-5 days.
Yield: 4kg(sprouts)/kg(seeds).
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Alfalfa
(Medicago sativa ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (seeds, leaf, herb); (herb, sprouts)
Market size: (excluding acreage planted for fodder): 12,000 hectares (world); 5,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices and acreage up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 350 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained; pH 6.0-7.5
Crop duration: 1-4 years
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|
(herb) |
Sowing rate: 9-13kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring, broadcast or sow in rows, 15-30cm apart. Two or more cuts at bud stage possible; last cut 6 weeks before killing frost. Heavy potash and phosphorus feeder.
Yield: dry herb 8-10,000kg/ha (years 1-4).
Pests: weevil, leafminer, leafhopper, snout beetle
Diseases: verticillium wilt, leafspot, phytophthora root rot.
Buyers want: organic product.
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(sprouts) |
Planting: soak seeds overnight; drain, keep moist. Ready in 3-5 days.
Yield: 4kg(sprouts)/kg(seeds).
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Arnica
(A. montana, A. chamissonis) |
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Market
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Products: (flower, root); (flower); 
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 160 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume down
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Culture |
Seed density: 700-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, humus-rich, pH 7 (A. chamissonis), pH 4.5-6 (A. montana)
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 1-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing not recommended. Sow in seedflats or plugs. Sow A. montana 16-20 weeks before transplanting to field; sow A. chamissonis 12 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 15-60cm between rows x 15-20cm within rows.
Harvest: flower (years 2-5), root (year 3 or 4).
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: chlorosis (yellow leaves) in A. montana caused by alkaline soil.
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Sowing rate: 8-10g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in seedflats or plugs 20 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8 weeks.
Pests: few problems, whitefly occasionally
Diseases: few problems.
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Alfalfa
(Medicago sativa ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (seeds, leaf, herb); (herb, sprouts)
Market size: (excluding acreage planted for fodder): 12,000 hectares (world); 5,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices and acreage up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 350 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained; pH 6.0-7.5
Crop duration: 1-4 years
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|
(herb) |
Sowing rate: 9-13kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring, broadcast or sow in rows, 15-30cm apart. Two or more cuts at bud stage possible; last cut 6 weeks before killing frost. Heavy potash and phosphorus feeder.
Yield: dry herb 8-10,000kg/ha (years 1-4).
Pests: weevil, leafminer, leafhopper, snout beetle
Diseases: verticillium wilt, leafspot, phytophthora root rot.
Buyers want: organic product.
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(sprouts) |
Planting: soak seeds overnight; drain, keep moist. Ready in 3-5 days.
Yield: 4kg(sprouts)/kg(seeds).
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Arnica
(A. montana, A. chamissonis) |
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Market
|
Products: (flower, root); (flower);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 160 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume down
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Culture |
Seed density: 700-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, humus-rich, pH 7 (A. chamissonis), pH 4.5-6 (A. montana)
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 1-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing not recommended. Sow in seedflats or plugs. Sow A. montana 16-20 weeks before transplanting to field; sow A. chamissonis 12 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 15-60cm between rows x 15-20cm within rows.
Harvest: flower (years 2-5), root (year 3 or 4).
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: chlorosis (yellow leaves) in A. montana caused by alkaline soil.
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Sowing rate: 8-10g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in seedflats or plugs 20 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8 weeks.
Pests: few problems, whitefly occasionally
Diseases: few problems.
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Lemon Balm
(Melissa officinalis) |
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Market
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Products: (herb); (herb);  (herb);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 75 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 2000 seeds/gram
Exposure: sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained clay or sandy loam, pH 6 to 7.5
Crop duration: 2-4 years
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Sowing rate: 7-9kg/ha (direct), 250-400g/ha (indirect, in plugs).
Planting: sowing in plugs in greenhouse in early spring till mid-summer is most common method; sow 6-8 weeks before transplanting to field. Direct sowing is not as common because weed control is more difficult; sow in early spring or late fall (to come up next spring).
Field spacing: 50-75cm between rows x 18-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry herb 5000kg/ha, fresh herb 10-25t/ha (years 1-3).
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: erisyphe powdery mildew, septoria blight, puccinia rust.
Buyers want: dry carefully to conserve oil in dried herb.
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Sowing rate: 3-5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in flats or plugs 11-14 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spidermite, thrip
Diseases: mildew.
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Alfalfa
(Medicago sativa ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (seeds, leaf, herb); (herb, sprouts)
Market size: (excluding acreage planted for fodder): 12,000 hectares (world); 5,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices and acreage up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 350 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained; pH 6.0-7.5
Crop duration: 1-4 years
|
|
(herb) |
Sowing rate: 9-13kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring, broadcast or sow in rows, 15-30cm apart. Two or more cuts at bud stage possible; last cut 6 weeks before killing frost. Heavy potash and phosphorus feeder.
Yield: dry herb 8-10,000kg/ha (years 1-4).
Pests: weevil, leafminer, leafhopper, snout beetle
Diseases: verticillium wilt, leafspot, phytophthora root rot.
Buyers want: organic product.
|
|
(sprouts) |
Planting: soak seeds overnight; drain, keep moist. Ready in 3-5 days.
Yield: 4kg(sprouts)/kg(seeds).
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Arnica
(A. montana, A. chamissonis) |
|
Market
|
Products: (flower, root); (flower);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 160 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume down
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 700-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, humus-rich, pH 7 (A. chamissonis), pH 4.5-6 (A. montana)
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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|
|
Sowing rate: 1-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing not recommended. Sow in seedflats or plugs. Sow A. montana 16-20 weeks before transplanting to field; sow A. chamissonis 12 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 15-60cm between rows x 15-20cm within rows.
Harvest: flower (years 2-5), root (year 3 or 4).
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: chlorosis (yellow leaves) in A. montana caused by alkaline soil.
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Sowing rate: 8-10g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in seedflats or plugs 20 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8 weeks.
Pests: few problems, whitefly occasionally
Diseases: few problems.
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Lemon Balm
(Melissa officinalis) |
|
Market
|
Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 75 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 2000 seeds/gram
Exposure: sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained clay or sandy loam, pH 6 to 7.5
Crop duration: 2-4 years
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Sowing rate: 7-9kg/ha (direct), 250-400g/ha (indirect, in plugs).
Planting: sowing in plugs in greenhouse in early spring till mid-summer is most common method; sow 6-8 weeks before transplanting to field. Direct sowing is not as common because weed control is more difficult; sow in early spring or late fall (to come up next spring).
Field spacing: 50-75cm between rows x 18-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry herb 5000kg/ha, fresh herb 10-25t/ha (years 1-3).
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: erisyphe powdery mildew, septoria blight, puccinia rust.
Buyers want: dry carefully to conserve oil in dried herb.
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Sowing rate: 3-5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in flats or plugs 11-14 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spidermite, thrip
Diseases: mildew.
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Basil
(Ocimum basilicum, and others ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf, herb); (herb); (oil);
Market size: 10,000 hectares (world), 1,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 500-1000 (O. gratissimum 2600, O. kilamandscharicum 2800, O. sanctum 1500-2500) seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: rich, well-drained
Crop duration: 1 year (O. basilicum), 1-3 years (others)
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Sowing rate: 20kg/ha (direct); 3-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in spring when nighttime temperatures exceed 10°C; or sow in flats or plugs 8 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 15-25cm within rows.
Yield: fresh herb 15,000kg/ha, dry herb 1,500-2,000kg/ha, oil 30kg/ha (year 1)
Pests: aphids, thrips
Diseases: O. basilicum varieties are highly susceptible to fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum) disease. Disease persists in soil for several years. Commercial field plantings should be sown with fusarium-tolerant Nufar F1. Hydroponic operations may choose fusarium-free varieties if equipment and facilities are free of fusarium (spreads by contaminated seeds and equipment). Other basil species (e.g. O. americanum and O. gratissimum) are fusarium-tolerant.
Buyers want: not less than 0.4% essential oil in dried product.
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Sowing rate: 3-4g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in final pots, or in plugs and later transplant to final pots. Nighttime temperature must not go below 10°C.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, thrips, aphids
Diseases: fusarium (see above).
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Alfalfa
(Medicago sativa ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (seeds, leaf, herb); (herb, sprouts)
Market size: (excluding acreage planted for fodder): 12,000 hectares (world); 5,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices and acreage up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 350 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained; pH 6.0-7.5
Crop duration: 1-4 years
|
|
(herb) |
Sowing rate: 9-13kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring, broadcast or sow in rows, 15-30cm apart. Two or more cuts at bud stage possible; last cut 6 weeks before killing frost. Heavy potash and phosphorus feeder.
Yield: dry herb 8-10,000kg/ha (years 1-4).
Pests: weevil, leafminer, leafhopper, snout beetle
Diseases: verticillium wilt, leafspot, phytophthora root rot.
Buyers want: organic product.
|
|
(sprouts) |
Planting: soak seeds overnight; drain, keep moist. Ready in 3-5 days.
Yield: 4kg(sprouts)/kg(seeds).
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Arnica
(A. montana, A. chamissonis) |
|
Market
|
Products: (flower, root); (flower);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 160 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume down
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 700-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, humus-rich, pH 7 (A. chamissonis), pH 4.5-6 (A. montana)
Crop duration: 3-5 years
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 1-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing not recommended. Sow in seedflats or plugs. Sow A. montana 16-20 weeks before transplanting to field; sow A. chamissonis 12 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 15-60cm between rows x 15-20cm within rows.
Harvest: flower (years 2-5), root (year 3 or 4).
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: chlorosis (yellow leaves) in A. montana caused by alkaline soil.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 8-10g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in seedflats or plugs 20 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8 weeks.
Pests: few problems, whitefly occasionally
Diseases: few problems.
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|
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| |
Lemon Balm
(Melissa officinalis) |
|
Market
|
Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 75 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 2000 seeds/gram
Exposure: sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained clay or sandy loam, pH 6 to 7.5
Crop duration: 2-4 years
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|
|
Sowing rate: 7-9kg/ha (direct), 250-400g/ha (indirect, in plugs).
Planting: sowing in plugs in greenhouse in early spring till mid-summer is most common method; sow 6-8 weeks before transplanting to field. Direct sowing is not as common because weed control is more difficult; sow in early spring or late fall (to come up next spring).
Field spacing: 50-75cm between rows x 18-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry herb 5000kg/ha, fresh herb 10-25t/ha (years 1-3).
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: erisyphe powdery mildew, septoria blight, puccinia rust.
Buyers want: dry carefully to conserve oil in dried herb.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 3-5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in flats or plugs 11-14 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spidermite, thrip
Diseases: mildew.
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Basil
(Ocimum basilicum, and others ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (leaf, herb); (herb); (oil);
Market size: 10,000 hectares (world), 1,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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|
Culture |
Seed density: 500-1000 (O. gratissimum 2600, O. kilamandscharicum 2800, O. sanctum 1500-2500) seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: rich, well-drained
Crop duration: 1 year (O. basilicum), 1-3 years (others)
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|
Sowing rate: 20kg/ha (direct); 3-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in spring when nighttime temperatures exceed 10°C; or sow in flats or plugs 8 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 15-25cm within rows.
Yield: fresh herb 15,000kg/ha, dry herb 1,500-2,000kg/ha, oil 30kg/ha (year 1)
Pests: aphids, thrips
Diseases: O. basilicum varieties are highly susceptible to fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum) disease. Disease persists in soil for several years. Commercial field plantings should be sown with fusarium-tolerant Nufar F1. Hydroponic operations may choose fusarium-free varieties if equipment and facilities are free of fusarium (spreads by contaminated seeds and equipment). Other basil species (e.g. O. americanum and O. gratissimum) are fusarium-tolerant.
Buyers want: not less than 0.4% essential oil in dried product.
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Sowing rate: 3-4g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in final pots, or in plugs and later transplant to final pots. Nighttime temperature must not go below 10°C.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, thrips, aphids
Diseases: fusarium (see above).
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Bay Laurel
(Laurus nobilis ) |
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Market
|
Products: (leaf); (leaf);
Market size: 2,000 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 1 seeds/gram
Exposure: sheltered position in full or half sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, moist
Crop duration: 20-50 years
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Sowing rate: 30-60kg/ha
Planting: sow stratified seeds in beds or flats.
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: leaves dried flat for visual appearance.
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Sowing rate: 5kg/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or flats in March or April.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks (after stratification).
Plugs to saleable plants: 10 weeks to a year.
Pests: whitefly, scale, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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Alfalfa
(Medicago sativa ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (seeds, leaf, herb); (herb, sprouts)
Market size: (excluding acreage planted for fodder): 12,000 hectares (world); 5,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices and acreage up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 350 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained; pH 6.0-7.5
Crop duration: 1-4 years
|
|
(herb) |
Sowing rate: 9-13kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring, broadcast or sow in rows, 15-30cm apart. Two or more cuts at bud stage possible; last cut 6 weeks before killing frost. Heavy potash and phosphorus feeder.
Yield: dry herb 8-10,000kg/ha (years 1-4).
Pests: weevil, leafminer, leafhopper, snout beetle
Diseases: verticillium wilt, leafspot, phytophthora root rot.
Buyers want: organic product.
|
|
(sprouts) |
Planting: soak seeds overnight; drain, keep moist. Ready in 3-5 days.
Yield: 4kg(sprouts)/kg(seeds).
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| |
Arnica
(A. montana, A. chamissonis) |
|
Market
|
Products: (flower, root); (flower);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 160 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume down
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 700-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, humus-rich, pH 7 (A. chamissonis), pH 4.5-6 (A. montana)
Crop duration: 3-5 years
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 1-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing not recommended. Sow in seedflats or plugs. Sow A. montana 16-20 weeks before transplanting to field; sow A. chamissonis 12 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 15-60cm between rows x 15-20cm within rows.
Harvest: flower (years 2-5), root (year 3 or 4).
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: chlorosis (yellow leaves) in A. montana caused by alkaline soil.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 8-10g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in seedflats or plugs 20 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8 weeks.
Pests: few problems, whitefly occasionally
Diseases: few problems.
|
|
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| |
Lemon Balm
(Melissa officinalis) |
|
Market
|
Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 75 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 2000 seeds/gram
Exposure: sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained clay or sandy loam, pH 6 to 7.5
Crop duration: 2-4 years
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 7-9kg/ha (direct), 250-400g/ha (indirect, in plugs).
Planting: sowing in plugs in greenhouse in early spring till mid-summer is most common method; sow 6-8 weeks before transplanting to field. Direct sowing is not as common because weed control is more difficult; sow in early spring or late fall (to come up next spring).
Field spacing: 50-75cm between rows x 18-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry herb 5000kg/ha, fresh herb 10-25t/ha (years 1-3).
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: erisyphe powdery mildew, septoria blight, puccinia rust.
Buyers want: dry carefully to conserve oil in dried herb.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 3-5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in flats or plugs 11-14 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spidermite, thrip
Diseases: mildew.
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| |
Basil
(Ocimum basilicum, and others ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (leaf, herb); (herb); (oil);
Market size: 10,000 hectares (world), 1,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 500-1000 (O. gratissimum 2600, O. kilamandscharicum 2800, O. sanctum 1500-2500) seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: rich, well-drained
Crop duration: 1 year (O. basilicum), 1-3 years (others)
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 20kg/ha (direct); 3-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in spring when nighttime temperatures exceed 10°C; or sow in flats or plugs 8 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 15-25cm within rows.
Yield: fresh herb 15,000kg/ha, dry herb 1,500-2,000kg/ha, oil 30kg/ha (year 1)
Pests: aphids, thrips
Diseases: O. basilicum varieties are highly susceptible to fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum) disease. Disease persists in soil for several years. Commercial field plantings should be sown with fusarium-tolerant Nufar F1. Hydroponic operations may choose fusarium-free varieties if equipment and facilities are free of fusarium (spreads by contaminated seeds and equipment). Other basil species (e.g. O. americanum and O. gratissimum) are fusarium-tolerant.
Buyers want: not less than 0.4% essential oil in dried product.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 3-4g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in final pots, or in plugs and later transplant to final pots. Nighttime temperature must not go below 10°C.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, thrips, aphids
Diseases: fusarium (see above).
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| |
Bay Laurel
(Laurus nobilis ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (leaf); (leaf);
Market size: 2,000 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 1 seeds/gram
Exposure: sheltered position in full or half sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, moist
Crop duration: 20-50 years
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|
|
Sowing rate: 30-60kg/ha
Planting: sow stratified seeds in beds or flats.
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: leaves dried flat for visual appearance.
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|
|
Sowing rate: 5kg/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or flats in March or April.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks (after stratification).
Plugs to saleable plants: 10 weeks to a year.
Pests: whitefly, scale, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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Borage
(Borago officinalis ) |
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Market
|
Products: (seed, herb, flower, root); (herb, flower, root), (seed);
Market size: 5,000 hectares (world); 2,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, acreage up
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Culture |
Seed density: 50 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: best in well-drained, fertile, moist soil, but tolerates most soils, pH 5-8
Crop duration: 1 year
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 5-17 kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in late spring in rows 45-90cm apart, 30-45cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 300kg/ha; fresh flower 1,000-5,000kg/ha; seed 90-450kg/ha.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: 24% gamma lineolenic acid content in seed oil.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 50-80g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots or plugs.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
|
|
|
|
| |
Alfalfa
(Medicago sativa ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (seeds, leaf, herb); (herb, sprouts)
Market size: (excluding acreage planted for fodder): 12,000 hectares (world); 5,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices and acreage up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 350 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained; pH 6.0-7.5
Crop duration: 1-4 years
|
|
(herb) |
Sowing rate: 9-13kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring, broadcast or sow in rows, 15-30cm apart. Two or more cuts at bud stage possible; last cut 6 weeks before killing frost. Heavy potash and phosphorus feeder.
Yield: dry herb 8-10,000kg/ha (years 1-4).
Pests: weevil, leafminer, leafhopper, snout beetle
Diseases: verticillium wilt, leafspot, phytophthora root rot.
Buyers want: organic product.
|
|
(sprouts) |
Planting: soak seeds overnight; drain, keep moist. Ready in 3-5 days.
Yield: 4kg(sprouts)/kg(seeds).
|
|
|
|
| |
Arnica
(A. montana, A. chamissonis) |
|
Market
|
Products: (flower, root); (flower);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 160 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume down
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 700-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, humus-rich, pH 7 (A. chamissonis), pH 4.5-6 (A. montana)
Crop duration: 3-5 years
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 1-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing not recommended. Sow in seedflats or plugs. Sow A. montana 16-20 weeks before transplanting to field; sow A. chamissonis 12 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 15-60cm between rows x 15-20cm within rows.
Harvest: flower (years 2-5), root (year 3 or 4).
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: chlorosis (yellow leaves) in A. montana caused by alkaline soil.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 8-10g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in seedflats or plugs 20 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8 weeks.
Pests: few problems, whitefly occasionally
Diseases: few problems.
|
|
|
|
| |
Lemon Balm
(Melissa officinalis) |
|
Market
|
Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 75 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 2000 seeds/gram
Exposure: sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained clay or sandy loam, pH 6 to 7.5
Crop duration: 2-4 years
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 7-9kg/ha (direct), 250-400g/ha (indirect, in plugs).
Planting: sowing in plugs in greenhouse in early spring till mid-summer is most common method; sow 6-8 weeks before transplanting to field. Direct sowing is not as common because weed control is more difficult; sow in early spring or late fall (to come up next spring).
Field spacing: 50-75cm between rows x 18-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry herb 5000kg/ha, fresh herb 10-25t/ha (years 1-3).
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: erisyphe powdery mildew, septoria blight, puccinia rust.
Buyers want: dry carefully to conserve oil in dried herb.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 3-5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in flats or plugs 11-14 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spidermite, thrip
Diseases: mildew.
|
|
|
|
| |
Basil
(Ocimum basilicum, and others ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (leaf, herb); (herb); (oil);
Market size: 10,000 hectares (world), 1,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 500-1000 (O. gratissimum 2600, O. kilamandscharicum 2800, O. sanctum 1500-2500) seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: rich, well-drained
Crop duration: 1 year (O. basilicum), 1-3 years (others)
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 20kg/ha (direct); 3-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in spring when nighttime temperatures exceed 10°C; or sow in flats or plugs 8 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 15-25cm within rows.
Yield: fresh herb 15,000kg/ha, dry herb 1,500-2,000kg/ha, oil 30kg/ha (year 1)
Pests: aphids, thrips
Diseases: O. basilicum varieties are highly susceptible to fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum) disease. Disease persists in soil for several years. Commercial field plantings should be sown with fusarium-tolerant Nufar F1. Hydroponic operations may choose fusarium-free varieties if equipment and facilities are free of fusarium (spreads by contaminated seeds and equipment). Other basil species (e.g. O. americanum and O. gratissimum) are fusarium-tolerant.
Buyers want: not less than 0.4% essential oil in dried product.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 3-4g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in final pots, or in plugs and later transplant to final pots. Nighttime temperature must not go below 10°C.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, thrips, aphids
Diseases: fusarium (see above).
|
|
|
|
| |
Bay Laurel
(Laurus nobilis ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (leaf); (leaf);
Market size: 2,000 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 1 seeds/gram
Exposure: sheltered position in full or half sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, moist
Crop duration: 20-50 years
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 30-60kg/ha
Planting: sow stratified seeds in beds or flats.
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: leaves dried flat for visual appearance.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 5kg/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or flats in March or April.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks (after stratification).
Plugs to saleable plants: 10 weeks to a year.
Pests: whitefly, scale, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
|
|
|
|
| |
Borage
(Borago officinalis ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (seed, herb, flower, root); (herb, flower, root), (seed);
Market size: 5,000 hectares (world); 2,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, acreage up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 50 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: best in well-drained, fertile, moist soil, but tolerates most soils, pH 5-8
Crop duration: 1 year
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 5-17 kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in late spring in rows 45-90cm apart, 30-45cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 300kg/ha; fresh flower 1,000-5,000kg/ha; seed 90-450kg/ha.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: 24% gamma lineolenic acid content in seed oil.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 50-80g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots or plugs.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
|
|
|
|
| |
Burdock
(Arctium lappa) |
|
Market
|
Products: (root, leaf); (root);
Market size: 3,000 hectares (world), 170 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 60-110 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or part sun
Soil: deep, loose, humus-rich, pH 6-8
Crop duration: 1-2 years
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 4 kg/ha (direct), 1.5kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring. Or, sow in beds or plugs and transplant to field in spring. For use as fresh vegetable, dig first year roots when young and tender at 3-5 months. For dry root production, dig in fall of second year.
Field spacing: 45-90cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry root 2,000kg/ha (years 2 or 3).
Pests: few problems, grasshopper
Diseases: few problems.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 20g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs 9-10 weeks before sale.
Seeds to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: powdery mildew.
|
|
|
|
| |
Alfalfa
(Medicago sativa ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (seeds, leaf, herb); (herb, sprouts)
Market size: (excluding acreage planted for fodder): 12,000 hectares (world); 5,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices and acreage up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 350 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained; pH 6.0-7.5
Crop duration: 1-4 years
|
|
(herb) |
Sowing rate: 9-13kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring, broadcast or sow in rows, 15-30cm apart. Two or more cuts at bud stage possible; last cut 6 weeks before killing frost. Heavy potash and phosphorus feeder.
Yield: dry herb 8-10,000kg/ha (years 1-4).
Pests: weevil, leafminer, leafhopper, snout beetle
Diseases: verticillium wilt, leafspot, phytophthora root rot.
Buyers want: organic product.
|
|
(sprouts) |
Planting: soak seeds overnight; drain, keep moist. Ready in 3-5 days.
Yield: 4kg(sprouts)/kg(seeds).
|
|
|
|
| |
Arnica
(A. montana, A. chamissonis) |
|
Market
|
Products: (flower, root); (flower);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 160 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume down
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 700-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, humus-rich, pH 7 (A. chamissonis), pH 4.5-6 (A. montana)
Crop duration: 3-5 years
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 1-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing not recommended. Sow in seedflats or plugs. Sow A. montana 16-20 weeks before transplanting to field; sow A. chamissonis 12 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 15-60cm between rows x 15-20cm within rows.
Harvest: flower (years 2-5), root (year 3 or 4).
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: chlorosis (yellow leaves) in A. montana caused by alkaline soil.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 8-10g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in seedflats or plugs 20 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8 weeks.
Pests: few problems, whitefly occasionally
Diseases: few problems.
|
|
|
|
| |
Lemon Balm
(Melissa officinalis) |
|
Market
|
Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 75 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 2000 seeds/gram
Exposure: sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained clay or sandy loam, pH 6 to 7.5
Crop duration: 2-4 years
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 7-9kg/ha (direct), 250-400g/ha (indirect, in plugs).
Planting: sowing in plugs in greenhouse in early spring till mid-summer is most common method; sow 6-8 weeks before transplanting to field. Direct sowing is not as common because weed control is more difficult; sow in early spring or late fall (to come up next spring).
Field spacing: 50-75cm between rows x 18-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry herb 5000kg/ha, fresh herb 10-25t/ha (years 1-3).
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: erisyphe powdery mildew, septoria blight, puccinia rust.
Buyers want: dry carefully to conserve oil in dried herb.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 3-5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in flats or plugs 11-14 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spidermite, thrip
Diseases: mildew.
|
|
|
|
| |
Basil
(Ocimum basilicum, and others ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (leaf, herb); (herb); (oil);
Market size: 10,000 hectares (world), 1,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 500-1000 (O. gratissimum 2600, O. kilamandscharicum 2800, O. sanctum 1500-2500) seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: rich, well-drained
Crop duration: 1 year (O. basilicum), 1-3 years (others)
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 20kg/ha (direct); 3-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in spring when nighttime temperatures exceed 10°C; or sow in flats or plugs 8 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 15-25cm within rows.
Yield: fresh herb 15,000kg/ha, dry herb 1,500-2,000kg/ha, oil 30kg/ha (year 1)
Pests: aphids, thrips
Diseases: O. basilicum varieties are highly susceptible to fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum) disease. Disease persists in soil for several years. Commercial field plantings should be sown with fusarium-tolerant Nufar F1. Hydroponic operations may choose fusarium-free varieties if equipment and facilities are free of fusarium (spreads by contaminated seeds and equipment). Other basil species (e.g. O. americanum and O. gratissimum) are fusarium-tolerant.
Buyers want: not less than 0.4% essential oil in dried product.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 3-4g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in final pots, or in plugs and later transplant to final pots. Nighttime temperature must not go below 10°C.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, thrips, aphids
Diseases: fusarium (see above).
|
|
|
|
| |
Bay Laurel
(Laurus nobilis ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (leaf); (leaf);
Market size: 2,000 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 1 seeds/gram
Exposure: sheltered position in full or half sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, moist
Crop duration: 20-50 years
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 30-60kg/ha
Planting: sow stratified seeds in beds or flats.
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: leaves dried flat for visual appearance.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 5kg/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or flats in March or April.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks (after stratification).
Plugs to saleable plants: 10 weeks to a year.
Pests: whitefly, scale, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
|
|
|
|
| |
Borage
(Borago officinalis ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (seed, herb, flower, root); (herb, flower, root), (seed);
Market size: 5,000 hectares (world); 2,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, acreage up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 50 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: best in well-drained, fertile, moist soil, but tolerates most soils, pH 5-8
Crop duration: 1 year
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 5-17 kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in late spring in rows 45-90cm apart, 30-45cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 300kg/ha; fresh flower 1,000-5,000kg/ha; seed 90-450kg/ha.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: 24% gamma lineolenic acid content in seed oil.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 50-80g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots or plugs.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
|
|
|
|
| |
Burdock
(Arctium lappa) |
|
Market
|
Products: (root, leaf); (root);
Market size: 3,000 hectares (world), 170 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 60-110 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or part sun
Soil: deep, loose, humus-rich, pH 6-8
Crop duration: 1-2 years
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 4 kg/ha (direct), 1.5kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring. Or, sow in beds or plugs and transplant to field in spring. For use as fresh vegetable, dig first year roots when young and tender at 3-5 months. For dry root production, dig in fall of second year.
Field spacing: 45-90cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry root 2,000kg/ha (years 2 or 3).
Pests: few problems, grasshopper
Diseases: few problems.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 20g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs 9-10 weeks before sale.
Seeds to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: powdery mildew.
|
|
|
|
| |
Calendula
(C. officinalis) |
|
Market
|
Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 880 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 150 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained; can tolerate poor soil with low nitrogen.
Crop duration: 1 year
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 3-9kg/ha (direct), 1kg/ha (indirect in plugs).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring or autumn; or sow in plugs 4-6 weeks before field planting. Seeds need light to germinate; cover seeds lightly or press in soil only.
Field spacing: 20-70cm between rows x 10-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 1-2,000kg/ha, fresh flower 6-9,000kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: blister-beetle, cabbage-looper, caterpillar, leafhopper
Diseases: leaf spot, aster-yellows.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 15g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or direct in pots 10-12 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 4-6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, aphid, thrip, mealybug
Diseases: powdery mildew.
|
|
|
|
| |
Alfalfa
(Medicago sativa ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (seeds, leaf, herb); (herb, sprouts)
Market size: (excluding acreage planted for fodder): 12,000 hectares (world); 5,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices and acreage up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 350 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained; pH 6.0-7.5
Crop duration: 1-4 years
|
|
(herb) |
Sowing rate: 9-13kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring, broadcast or sow in rows, 15-30cm apart. Two or more cuts at bud stage possible; last cut 6 weeks before killing frost. Heavy potash and phosphorus feeder.
Yield: dry herb 8-10,000kg/ha (years 1-4).
Pests: weevil, leafminer, leafhopper, snout beetle
Diseases: verticillium wilt, leafspot, phytophthora root rot.
Buyers want: organic product.
|
|
(sprouts) |
Planting: soak seeds overnight; drain, keep moist. Ready in 3-5 days.
Yield: 4kg(sprouts)/kg(seeds).
|
|
|
|
| |
Arnica
(A. montana, A. chamissonis) |
|
Market
|
Products: (flower, root); (flower);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 160 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume down
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 700-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, humus-rich, pH 7 (A. chamissonis), pH 4.5-6 (A. montana)
Crop duration: 3-5 years
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 1-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing not recommended. Sow in seedflats or plugs. Sow A. montana 16-20 weeks before transplanting to field; sow A. chamissonis 12 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 15-60cm between rows x 15-20cm within rows.
Harvest: flower (years 2-5), root (year 3 or 4).
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: chlorosis (yellow leaves) in A. montana caused by alkaline soil.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 8-10g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in seedflats or plugs 20 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8 weeks.
Pests: few problems, whitefly occasionally
Diseases: few problems.
|
|
|
|
| |
Lemon Balm
(Melissa officinalis) |
|
Market
|
Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 75 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 2000 seeds/gram
Exposure: sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained clay or sandy loam, pH 6 to 7.5
Crop duration: 2-4 years
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 7-9kg/ha (direct), 250-400g/ha (indirect, in plugs).
Planting: sowing in plugs in greenhouse in early spring till mid-summer is most common method; sow 6-8 weeks before transplanting to field. Direct sowing is not as common because weed control is more difficult; sow in early spring or late fall (to come up next spring).
Field spacing: 50-75cm between rows x 18-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry herb 5000kg/ha, fresh herb 10-25t/ha (years 1-3).
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: erisyphe powdery mildew, septoria blight, puccinia rust.
Buyers want: dry carefully to conserve oil in dried herb.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 3-5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in flats or plugs 11-14 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spidermite, thrip
Diseases: mildew.
|
|
|
|
| |
Basil
(Ocimum basilicum, and others ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (leaf, herb); (herb); (oil);
Market size: 10,000 hectares (world), 1,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 500-1000 (O. gratissimum 2600, O. kilamandscharicum 2800, O. sanctum 1500-2500) seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: rich, well-drained
Crop duration: 1 year (O. basilicum), 1-3 years (others)
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 20kg/ha (direct); 3-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in spring when nighttime temperatures exceed 10°C; or sow in flats or plugs 8 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 15-25cm within rows.
Yield: fresh herb 15,000kg/ha, dry herb 1,500-2,000kg/ha, oil 30kg/ha (year 1)
Pests: aphids, thrips
Diseases: O. basilicum varieties are highly susceptible to fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum) disease. Disease persists in soil for several years. Commercial field plantings should be sown with fusarium-tolerant Nufar F1. Hydroponic operations may choose fusarium-free varieties if equipment and facilities are free of fusarium (spreads by contaminated seeds and equipment). Other basil species (e.g. O. americanum and O. gratissimum) are fusarium-tolerant.
Buyers want: not less than 0.4% essential oil in dried product.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 3-4g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in final pots, or in plugs and later transplant to final pots. Nighttime temperature must not go below 10°C.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, thrips, aphids
Diseases: fusarium (see above).
|
|
|
|
| |
Bay Laurel
(Laurus nobilis ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (leaf); (leaf);
Market size: 2,000 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 1 seeds/gram
Exposure: sheltered position in full or half sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, moist
Crop duration: 20-50 years
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 30-60kg/ha
Planting: sow stratified seeds in beds or flats.
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: leaves dried flat for visual appearance.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 5kg/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or flats in March or April.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks (after stratification).
Plugs to saleable plants: 10 weeks to a year.
Pests: whitefly, scale, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
|
|
|
|
| |
Borage
(Borago officinalis ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (seed, herb, flower, root); (herb, flower, root), (seed);
Market size: 5,000 hectares (world); 2,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, acreage up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 50 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: best in well-drained, fertile, moist soil, but tolerates most soils, pH 5-8
Crop duration: 1 year
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 5-17 kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in late spring in rows 45-90cm apart, 30-45cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 300kg/ha; fresh flower 1,000-5,000kg/ha; seed 90-450kg/ha.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: 24% gamma lineolenic acid content in seed oil.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 50-80g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots or plugs.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
|
|
|
|
| |
Burdock
(Arctium lappa) |
|
Market
|
Products: (root, leaf); (root);
Market size: 3,000 hectares (world), 170 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 60-110 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or part sun
Soil: deep, loose, humus-rich, pH 6-8
Crop duration: 1-2 years
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 4 kg/ha (direct), 1.5kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring. Or, sow in beds or plugs and transplant to field in spring. For use as fresh vegetable, dig first year roots when young and tender at 3-5 months. For dry root production, dig in fall of second year.
Field spacing: 45-90cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry root 2,000kg/ha (years 2 or 3).
Pests: few problems, grasshopper
Diseases: few problems.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 20g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs 9-10 weeks before sale.
Seeds to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: powdery mildew.
|
|
|
|
| |
Calendula
(C. officinalis) |
|
Market
|
Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 880 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 150 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained; can tolerate poor soil with low nitrogen.
Crop duration: 1 year
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 3-9kg/ha (direct), 1kg/ha (indirect in plugs).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring or autumn; or sow in plugs 4-6 weeks before field planting. Seeds need light to germinate; cover seeds lightly or press in soil only.
Field spacing: 20-70cm between rows x 10-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 1-2,000kg/ha, fresh flower 6-9,000kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: blister-beetle, cabbage-looper, caterpillar, leafhopper
Diseases: leaf spot, aster-yellows.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 15g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or direct in pots 10-12 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 4-6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, aphid, thrip, mealybug
Diseases: powdery mildew.
|
|
|
|
| |
Caraway
(Carum carvi) |
|
Market
|
Products: (seed); (seed)
Market size: 19,000 hectares (world), 2,500 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 350-400 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, pH 6-7.8.
Crop duration: 1-2 years (depending on variety)
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 8-11 kg/ha.
Planting: sow standard biennial type direct in field late June or early July; harvest following year in August. Sow annual type in May (suited for warmer regions with 5-6 frost-free months). Sometimes sown with annual cover crops such as coriander, dill, mustard the first year.
Field spacing: 10-50cm between rows x 4-15cm within rows.
Yield: seed 600-3,000kg/ha, oil 4.5-7kg/ha (year 1 or 2, depending on variety).
Pests: leafhopper
Diseases: aster yellows.
Buyers want: seed minimum 3% oil, maximum 12% moisture.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| |
Alfalfa
(Medicago sativa ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (seeds, leaf, herb); (herb, sprouts)
Market size: (excluding acreage planted for fodder): 12,000 hectares (world); 5,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices and acreage up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 350 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained; pH 6.0-7.5
Crop duration: 1-4 years
|
|
(herb) |
Sowing rate: 9-13kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring, broadcast or sow in rows, 15-30cm apart. Two or more cuts at bud stage possible; last cut 6 weeks before killing frost. Heavy potash and phosphorus feeder.
Yield: dry herb 8-10,000kg/ha (years 1-4).
Pests: weevil, leafminer, leafhopper, snout beetle
Diseases: verticillium wilt, leafspot, phytophthora root rot.
Buyers want: organic product.
|
|
(sprouts) |
Planting: soak seeds overnight; drain, keep moist. Ready in 3-5 days.
Yield: 4kg(sprouts)/kg(seeds).
|
|
|
|
| |
Arnica
(A. montana, A. chamissonis) |
|
Market
|
Products: (flower, root); (flower);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 160 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume down
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 700-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, humus-rich, pH 7 (A. chamissonis), pH 4.5-6 (A. montana)
Crop duration: 3-5 years
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 1-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing not recommended. Sow in seedflats or plugs. Sow A. montana 16-20 weeks before transplanting to field; sow A. chamissonis 12 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 15-60cm between rows x 15-20cm within rows.
Harvest: flower (years 2-5), root (year 3 or 4).
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: chlorosis (yellow leaves) in A. montana caused by alkaline soil.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 8-10g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in seedflats or plugs 20 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8 weeks.
Pests: few problems, whitefly occasionally
Diseases: few problems.
|
|
|
|
| |
Lemon Balm
(Melissa officinalis) |
|
Market
|
Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 75 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 2000 seeds/gram
Exposure: sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained clay or sandy loam, pH 6 to 7.5
Crop duration: 2-4 years
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 7-9kg/ha (direct), 250-400g/ha (indirect, in plugs).
Planting: sowing in plugs in greenhouse in early spring till mid-summer is most common method; sow 6-8 weeks before transplanting to field. Direct sowing is not as common because weed control is more difficult; sow in early spring or late fall (to come up next spring).
Field spacing: 50-75cm between rows x 18-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry herb 5000kg/ha, fresh herb 10-25t/ha (years 1-3).
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: erisyphe powdery mildew, septoria blight, puccinia rust.
Buyers want: dry carefully to conserve oil in dried herb.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 3-5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in flats or plugs 11-14 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spidermite, thrip
Diseases: mildew.
|
|
|
|
| |
Basil
(Ocimum basilicum, and others ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (leaf, herb); (herb); (oil);
Market size: 10,000 hectares (world), 1,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 500-1000 (O. gratissimum 2600, O. kilamandscharicum 2800, O. sanctum 1500-2500) seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: rich, well-drained
Crop duration: 1 year (O. basilicum), 1-3 years (others)
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 20kg/ha (direct); 3-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in spring when nighttime temperatures exceed 10°C; or sow in flats or plugs 8 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 15-25cm within rows.
Yield: fresh herb 15,000kg/ha, dry herb 1,500-2,000kg/ha, oil 30kg/ha (year 1)
Pests: aphids, thrips
Diseases: O. basilicum varieties are highly susceptible to fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum) disease. Disease persists in soil for several years. Commercial field plantings should be sown with fusarium-tolerant Nufar F1. Hydroponic operations may choose fusarium-free varieties if equipment and facilities are free of fusarium (spreads by contaminated seeds and equipment). Other basil species (e.g. O. americanum and O. gratissimum) are fusarium-tolerant.
Buyers want: not less than 0.4% essential oil in dried product.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 3-4g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in final pots, or in plugs and later transplant to final pots. Nighttime temperature must not go below 10°C.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, thrips, aphids
Diseases: fusarium (see above).
|
|
|
|
| |
Bay Laurel
(Laurus nobilis ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (leaf); (leaf);
Market size: 2,000 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 1 seeds/gram
Exposure: sheltered position in full or half sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, moist
Crop duration: 20-50 years
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 30-60kg/ha
Planting: sow stratified seeds in beds or flats.
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: leaves dried flat for visual appearance.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 5kg/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or flats in March or April.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks (after stratification).
Plugs to saleable plants: 10 weeks to a year.
Pests: whitefly, scale, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
|
|
|
|
| |
Borage
(Borago officinalis ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (seed, herb, flower, root); (herb, flower, root), (seed);
Market size: 5,000 hectares (world); 2,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, acreage up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 50 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: best in well-drained, fertile, moist soil, but tolerates most soils, pH 5-8
Crop duration: 1 year
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 5-17 kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in late spring in rows 45-90cm apart, 30-45cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 300kg/ha; fresh flower 1,000-5,000kg/ha; seed 90-450kg/ha.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: 24% gamma lineolenic acid content in seed oil.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 50-80g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots or plugs.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
|
|
|
|
| |
Burdock
(Arctium lappa) |
|
Market
|
Products: (root, leaf); (root);
Market size: 3,000 hectares (world), 170 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 60-110 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or part sun
Soil: deep, loose, humus-rich, pH 6-8
Crop duration: 1-2 years
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 4 kg/ha (direct), 1.5kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring. Or, sow in beds or plugs and transplant to field in spring. For use as fresh vegetable, dig first year roots when young and tender at 3-5 months. For dry root production, dig in fall of second year.
Field spacing: 45-90cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry root 2,000kg/ha (years 2 or 3).
Pests: few problems, grasshopper
Diseases: few problems.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 20g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs 9-10 weeks before sale.
Seeds to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: powdery mildew.
|
|
|
|
| |
Calendula
(C. officinalis) |
|
Market
|
Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 880 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 150 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained; can tolerate poor soil with low nitrogen.
Crop duration: 1 year
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 3-9kg/ha (direct), 1kg/ha (indirect in plugs).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring or autumn; or sow in plugs 4-6 weeks before field planting. Seeds need light to germinate; cover seeds lightly or press in soil only.
Field spacing: 20-70cm between rows x 10-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 1-2,000kg/ha, fresh flower 6-9,000kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: blister-beetle, cabbage-looper, caterpillar, leafhopper
Diseases: leaf spot, aster-yellows.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 15g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or direct in pots 10-12 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 4-6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, aphid, thrip, mealybug
Diseases: powdery mildew.
|
|
|
|
| |
Caraway
(Carum carvi) |
|
Market
|
Products: (seed); (seed)
Market size: 19,000 hectares (world), 2,500 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 350-400 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, pH 6-7.8.
Crop duration: 1-2 years (depending on variety)
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 8-11 kg/ha.
Planting: sow standard biennial type direct in field late June or early July; harvest following year in August. Sow annual type in May (suited for warmer regions with 5-6 frost-free months). Sometimes sown with annual cover crops such as coriander, dill, mustard the first year.
Field spacing: 10-50cm between rows x 4-15cm within rows.
Yield: seed 600-3,000kg/ha, oil 4.5-7kg/ha (year 1 or 2, depending on variety).
Pests: leafhopper
Diseases: aster yellows.
Buyers want: seed minimum 3% oil, maximum 12% moisture.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| |
Catnip
(Nepeta cataria ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (herb, leaf);
Market size: 2,400 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 1500-1600 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or partial sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, sandy, pH 6.5
Crop duration: 2-5 years
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 12 kg/ha (direct), 1kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring or late fall. Or, sow in plugs 8-10 weeks before field planting. Seed needs light to germinate; sow shallow 2-4mm deep.
Field spacing: 45-90cm between rows x 30-40cm within rows.
Harvest: leaf, herb (years 2-5).
Yield: dry herb 3-6t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 3g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or seedflats 12-15 weeks before sale. Sow 2-4mm deep.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8-10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3-5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
|
|
|
|
| |
Alfalfa
(Medicago sativa ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (seeds, leaf, herb); (herb, sprouts)
Market size: (excluding acreage planted for fodder): 12,000 hectares (world); 5,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices and acreage up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 350 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained; pH 6.0-7.5
Crop duration: 1-4 years
|
|
(herb) |
Sowing rate: 9-13kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring, broadcast or sow in rows, 15-30cm apart. Two or more cuts at bud stage possible; last cut 6 weeks before killing frost. Heavy potash and phosphorus feeder.
Yield: dry herb 8-10,000kg/ha (years 1-4).
Pests: weevil, leafminer, leafhopper, snout beetle
Diseases: verticillium wilt, leafspot, phytophthora root rot.
Buyers want: organic product.
|
|
(sprouts) |
Planting: soak seeds overnight; drain, keep moist. Ready in 3-5 days.
Yield: 4kg(sprouts)/kg(seeds).
|
|
|
|
| |
Arnica
(A. montana, A. chamissonis) |
|
Market
|
Products: (flower, root); (flower);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 160 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume down
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 700-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, humus-rich, pH 7 (A. chamissonis), pH 4.5-6 (A. montana)
Crop duration: 3-5 years
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 1-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing not recommended. Sow in seedflats or plugs. Sow A. montana 16-20 weeks before transplanting to field; sow A. chamissonis 12 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 15-60cm between rows x 15-20cm within rows.
Harvest: flower (years 2-5), root (year 3 or 4).
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: chlorosis (yellow leaves) in A. montana caused by alkaline soil.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 8-10g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in seedflats or plugs 20 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8 weeks.
Pests: few problems, whitefly occasionally
Diseases: few problems.
|
|
|
|
| |
Lemon Balm
(Melissa officinalis) |
|
Market
|
Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 75 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 2000 seeds/gram
Exposure: sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained clay or sandy loam, pH 6 to 7.5
Crop duration: 2-4 years
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 7-9kg/ha (direct), 250-400g/ha (indirect, in plugs).
Planting: sowing in plugs in greenhouse in early spring till mid-summer is most common method; sow 6-8 weeks before transplanting to field. Direct sowing is not as common because weed control is more difficult; sow in early spring or late fall (to come up next spring).
Field spacing: 50-75cm between rows x 18-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry herb 5000kg/ha, fresh herb 10-25t/ha (years 1-3).
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: erisyphe powdery mildew, septoria blight, puccinia rust.
Buyers want: dry carefully to conserve oil in dried herb.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 3-5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in flats or plugs 11-14 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spidermite, thrip
Diseases: mildew.
|
|
|
|
| |
Basil
(Ocimum basilicum, and others ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (leaf, herb); (herb); (oil);
Market size: 10,000 hectares (world), 1,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 500-1000 (O. gratissimum 2600, O. kilamandscharicum 2800, O. sanctum 1500-2500) seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: rich, well-drained
Crop duration: 1 year (O. basilicum), 1-3 years (others)
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 20kg/ha (direct); 3-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in spring when nighttime temperatures exceed 10°C; or sow in flats or plugs 8 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 15-25cm within rows.
Yield: fresh herb 15,000kg/ha, dry herb 1,500-2,000kg/ha, oil 30kg/ha (year 1)
Pests: aphids, thrips
Diseases: O. basilicum varieties are highly susceptible to fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum) disease. Disease persists in soil for several years. Commercial field plantings should be sown with fusarium-tolerant Nufar F1. Hydroponic operations may choose fusarium-free varieties if equipment and facilities are free of fusarium (spreads by contaminated seeds and equipment). Other basil species (e.g. O. americanum and O. gratissimum) are fusarium-tolerant.
Buyers want: not less than 0.4% essential oil in dried product.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 3-4g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in final pots, or in plugs and later transplant to final pots. Nighttime temperature must not go below 10°C.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, thrips, aphids
Diseases: fusarium (see above).
|
|
|
|
| |
Bay Laurel
(Laurus nobilis ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (leaf); (leaf);
Market size: 2,000 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 1 seeds/gram
Exposure: sheltered position in full or half sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, moist
Crop duration: 20-50 years
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 30-60kg/ha
Planting: sow stratified seeds in beds or flats.
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: leaves dried flat for visual appearance.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 5kg/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or flats in March or April.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks (after stratification).
Plugs to saleable plants: 10 weeks to a year.
Pests: whitefly, scale, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
|
|
|
|
| |
Borage
(Borago officinalis ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (seed, herb, flower, root); (herb, flower, root), (seed);
Market size: 5,000 hectares (world); 2,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, acreage up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 50 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: best in well-drained, fertile, moist soil, but tolerates most soils, pH 5-8
Crop duration: 1 year
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 5-17 kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in late spring in rows 45-90cm apart, 30-45cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 300kg/ha; fresh flower 1,000-5,000kg/ha; seed 90-450kg/ha.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: 24% gamma lineolenic acid content in seed oil.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 50-80g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots or plugs.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
|
|
|
|
| |
Burdock
(Arctium lappa) |
|
Market
|
Products: (root, leaf); (root);
Market size: 3,000 hectares (world), 170 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 60-110 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or part sun
Soil: deep, loose, humus-rich, pH 6-8
Crop duration: 1-2 years
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 4 kg/ha (direct), 1.5kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring. Or, sow in beds or plugs and transplant to field in spring. For use as fresh vegetable, dig first year roots when young and tender at 3-5 months. For dry root production, dig in fall of second year.
Field spacing: 45-90cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry root 2,000kg/ha (years 2 or 3).
Pests: few problems, grasshopper
Diseases: few problems.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 20g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs 9-10 weeks before sale.
Seeds to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: powdery mildew.
|
|
|
|
| |
Calendula
(C. officinalis) |
|
Market
|
Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 880 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 150 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained; can tolerate poor soil with low nitrogen.
Crop duration: 1 year
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 3-9kg/ha (direct), 1kg/ha (indirect in plugs).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring or autumn; or sow in plugs 4-6 weeks before field planting. Seeds need light to germinate; cover seeds lightly or press in soil only.
Field spacing: 20-70cm between rows x 10-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 1-2,000kg/ha, fresh flower 6-9,000kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: blister-beetle, cabbage-looper, caterpillar, leafhopper
Diseases: leaf spot, aster-yellows.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 15g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or direct in pots 10-12 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 4-6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, aphid, thrip, mealybug
Diseases: powdery mildew.
|
|
|
|
| |
Caraway
(Carum carvi) |
|
Market
|
Products: (seed); (seed)
Market size: 19,000 hectares (world), 2,500 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 350-400 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, pH 6-7.8.
Crop duration: 1-2 years (depending on variety)
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 8-11 kg/ha.
Planting: sow standard biennial type direct in field late June or early July; harvest following year in August. Sow annual type in May (suited for warmer regions with 5-6 frost-free months). Sometimes sown with annual cover crops such as coriander, dill, mustard the first year.
Field spacing: 10-50cm between rows x 4-15cm within rows.
Yield: seed 600-3,000kg/ha, oil 4.5-7kg/ha (year 1 or 2, depending on variety).
Pests: leafhopper
Diseases: aster yellows.
Buyers want: seed minimum 3% oil, maximum 12% moisture.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| |
Catnip
(Nepeta cataria ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (herb, leaf);
Market size: 2,400 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 1500-1600 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or partial sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, sandy, pH 6.5
Crop duration: 2-5 years
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 12 kg/ha (direct), 1kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring or late fall. Or, sow in plugs 8-10 weeks before field planting. Seed needs light to germinate; sow shallow 2-4mm deep.
Field spacing: 45-90cm between rows x 30-40cm within rows.
Harvest: leaf, herb (years 2-5).
Yield: dry herb 3-6t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 3g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or seedflats 12-15 weeks before sale. Sow 2-4mm deep.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8-10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3-5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
|
|
|
|
| |
Chamomile
(Matricaria recutita, Chamaemelum nobile ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 40,000 hectares (world), 4,800 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 10,000-18,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained, moist to dry
Crop duration: 1 year (M. recutita), 2-3 years (C. nobile)
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 3-4 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect)
Planting: german (M. recutita) is sown direct in field in spring or fall. Fall sowings germinate following spring. Roman (C. nobile) is sown direct or indirect in plugs which are later planted in field. Surface sow only (needs light to germinate). Hand harvesting flowers problematic in areas where labour cost is high; mechanical harvesting still unproven.
Field spacing: 10-50cm between rows x 10-25cm within rows, or broadcast sown.
Yield: dry flower 350-500kg/ha (M. recutita; year 1), 600-1000 kg/ha (C. nobile; years 1-3).
Pests: cnephasia moth
Diseases: aster yellows.
Buyers want: 0.4% or more volatile oil.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 1g/1000plants.
Planting: german (M. recutita) not normally sold in pots; roman (C. nobile) and its varieties are sold in pots or plugs. Seeds need light to germinate; surface sow only.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4-6 weeks.
Pests: aphid, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
|
|
|
|
| |
Alfalfa
(Medicago sativa ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (seeds, leaf, herb); (herb, sprouts)
Market size: (excluding acreage planted for fodder): 12,000 hectares (world); 5,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices and acreage up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 350 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained; pH 6.0-7.5
Crop duration: 1-4 years
|
|
(herb) |
Sowing rate: 9-13kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring, broadcast or sow in rows, 15-30cm apart. Two or more cuts at bud stage possible; last cut 6 weeks before killing frost. Heavy potash and phosphorus feeder.
Yield: dry herb 8-10,000kg/ha (years 1-4).
Pests: weevil, leafminer, leafhopper, snout beetle
Diseases: verticillium wilt, leafspot, phytophthora root rot.
Buyers want: organic product.
|
|
(sprouts) |
Planting: soak seeds overnight; drain, keep moist. Ready in 3-5 days.
Yield: 4kg(sprouts)/kg(seeds).
|
|
|
|
| |
Arnica
(A. montana, A. chamissonis) |
|
Market
|
Products: (flower, root); (flower);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 160 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume down
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 700-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, humus-rich, pH 7 (A. chamissonis), pH 4.5-6 (A. montana)
Crop duration: 3-5 years
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 1-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing not recommended. Sow in seedflats or plugs. Sow A. montana 16-20 weeks before transplanting to field; sow A. chamissonis 12 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 15-60cm between rows x 15-20cm within rows.
Harvest: flower (years 2-5), root (year 3 or 4).
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: chlorosis (yellow leaves) in A. montana caused by alkaline soil.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 8-10g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in seedflats or plugs 20 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8 weeks.
Pests: few problems, whitefly occasionally
Diseases: few problems.
|
|
|
|
| |
Lemon Balm
(Melissa officinalis) |
|
Market
|
Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 75 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 2000 seeds/gram
Exposure: sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained clay or sandy loam, pH 6 to 7.5
Crop duration: 2-4 years
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 7-9kg/ha (direct), 250-400g/ha (indirect, in plugs).
Planting: sowing in plugs in greenhouse in early spring till mid-summer is most common method; sow 6-8 weeks before transplanting to field. Direct sowing is not as common because weed control is more difficult; sow in early spring or late fall (to come up next spring).
Field spacing: 50-75cm between rows x 18-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry herb 5000kg/ha, fresh herb 10-25t/ha (years 1-3).
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: erisyphe powdery mildew, septoria blight, puccinia rust.
Buyers want: dry carefully to conserve oil in dried herb.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 3-5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in flats or plugs 11-14 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spidermite, thrip
Diseases: mildew.
|
|
|
|
| |
Basil
(Ocimum basilicum, and others ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (leaf, herb); (herb); (oil);
Market size: 10,000 hectares (world), 1,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 500-1000 (O. gratissimum 2600, O. kilamandscharicum 2800, O. sanctum 1500-2500) seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: rich, well-drained
Crop duration: 1 year (O. basilicum), 1-3 years (others)
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 20kg/ha (direct); 3-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in spring when nighttime temperatures exceed 10°C; or sow in flats or plugs 8 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 15-25cm within rows.
Yield: fresh herb 15,000kg/ha, dry herb 1,500-2,000kg/ha, oil 30kg/ha (year 1)
Pests: aphids, thrips
Diseases: O. basilicum varieties are highly susceptible to fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum) disease. Disease persists in soil for several years. Commercial field plantings should be sown with fusarium-tolerant Nufar F1. Hydroponic operations may choose fusarium-free varieties if equipment and facilities are free of fusarium (spreads by contaminated seeds and equipment). Other basil species (e.g. O. americanum and O. gratissimum) are fusarium-tolerant.
Buyers want: not less than 0.4% essential oil in dried product.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 3-4g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in final pots, or in plugs and later transplant to final pots. Nighttime temperature must not go below 10°C.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, thrips, aphids
Diseases: fusarium (see above).
|
|
|
|
| |
Bay Laurel
(Laurus nobilis ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (leaf); (leaf);
Market size: 2,000 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 1 seeds/gram
Exposure: sheltered position in full or half sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, moist
Crop duration: 20-50 years
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 30-60kg/ha
Planting: sow stratified seeds in beds or flats.
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: leaves dried flat for visual appearance.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 5kg/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or flats in March or April.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks (after stratification).
Plugs to saleable plants: 10 weeks to a year.
Pests: whitefly, scale, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
|
|
|
|
| |
Borage
(Borago officinalis ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (seed, herb, flower, root); (herb, flower, root), (seed);
Market size: 5,000 hectares (world); 2,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, acreage up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 50 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: best in well-drained, fertile, moist soil, but tolerates most soils, pH 5-8
Crop duration: 1 year
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 5-17 kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in late spring in rows 45-90cm apart, 30-45cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 300kg/ha; fresh flower 1,000-5,000kg/ha; seed 90-450kg/ha.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: 24% gamma lineolenic acid content in seed oil.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 50-80g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots or plugs.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
|
|
|
|
| |
Burdock
(Arctium lappa) |
|
Market
|
Products: (root, leaf); (root);
Market size: 3,000 hectares (world), 170 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 60-110 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or part sun
Soil: deep, loose, humus-rich, pH 6-8
Crop duration: 1-2 years
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 4 kg/ha (direct), 1.5kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring. Or, sow in beds or plugs and transplant to field in spring. For use as fresh vegetable, dig first year roots when young and tender at 3-5 months. For dry root production, dig in fall of second year.
Field spacing: 45-90cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry root 2,000kg/ha (years 2 or 3).
Pests: few problems, grasshopper
Diseases: few problems.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 20g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs 9-10 weeks before sale.
Seeds to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: powdery mildew.
|
|
|
|
| |
Calendula
(C. officinalis) |
|
Market
|
Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 880 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 150 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained; can tolerate poor soil with low nitrogen.
Crop duration: 1 year
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 3-9kg/ha (direct), 1kg/ha (indirect in plugs).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring or autumn; or sow in plugs 4-6 weeks before field planting. Seeds need light to germinate; cover seeds lightly or press in soil only.
Field spacing: 20-70cm between rows x 10-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 1-2,000kg/ha, fresh flower 6-9,000kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: blister-beetle, cabbage-looper, caterpillar, leafhopper
Diseases: leaf spot, aster-yellows.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 15g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or direct in pots 10-12 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 4-6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, aphid, thrip, mealybug
Diseases: powdery mildew.
|
|
|
|
| |
Caraway
(Carum carvi) |
|
Market
|
Products: (seed); (seed)
Market size: 19,000 hectares (world), 2,500 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 350-400 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, pH 6-7.8.
Crop duration: 1-2 years (depending on variety)
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 8-11 kg/ha.
Planting: sow standard biennial type direct in field late June or early July; harvest following year in August. Sow annual type in May (suited for warmer regions with 5-6 frost-free months). Sometimes sown with annual cover crops such as coriander, dill, mustard the first year.
Field spacing: 10-50cm between rows x 4-15cm within rows.
Yield: seed 600-3,000kg/ha, oil 4.5-7kg/ha (year 1 or 2, depending on variety).
Pests: leafhopper
Diseases: aster yellows.
Buyers want: seed minimum 3% oil, maximum 12% moisture.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| |
Catnip
(Nepeta cataria ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (herb, leaf);
Market size: 2,400 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 1500-1600 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or partial sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, sandy, pH 6.5
Crop duration: 2-5 years
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 12 kg/ha (direct), 1kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring or late fall. Or, sow in plugs 8-10 weeks before field planting. Seed needs light to germinate; sow shallow 2-4mm deep.
Field spacing: 45-90cm between rows x 30-40cm within rows.
Harvest: leaf, herb (years 2-5).
Yield: dry herb 3-6t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 3g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or seedflats 12-15 weeks before sale. Sow 2-4mm deep.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8-10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3-5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
|
|
|
|
| |
Chamomile
(Matricaria recutita, Chamaemelum nobile ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 40,000 hectares (world), 4,800 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 10,000-18,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained, moist to dry
Crop duration: 1 year (M. recutita), 2-3 years (C. nobile)
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 3-4 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect)
Planting: german (M. recutita) is sown direct in field in spring or fall. Fall sowings germinate following spring. Roman (C. nobile) is sown direct or indirect in plugs which are later planted in field. Surface sow only (needs light to germinate). Hand harvesting flowers problematic in areas where labour cost is high; mechanical harvesting still unproven.
Field spacing: 10-50cm between rows x 10-25cm within rows, or broadcast sown.
Yield: dry flower 350-500kg/ha (M. recutita; year 1), 600-1000 kg/ha (C. nobile; years 1-3).
Pests: cnephasia moth
Diseases: aster yellows.
Buyers want: 0.4% or more volatile oil.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 1g/1000plants.
Planting: german (M. recutita) not normally sold in pots; roman (C. nobile) and its varieties are sold in pots or plugs. Seeds need light to germinate; surface sow only.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4-6 weeks.
Pests: aphid, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
|
|
|
|
| |
Chives
(Allium schoenoprasum, A. tuberosum ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (leaf, flower); (leaf, flower);
Market size: 24,000 hectares (world), 3,200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 750 (A. schoenoprasum), 200-300 (A. tuberosum) seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, humus-rich
Crop duration: 3-5 years
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 2-3 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring, or sow indirect in plugs 12-16 weeks before field planting. Field must be free of quackgrass otherwise harvests will be contaminated.
Field spacing: 30cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: fresh leaf 10-20t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: aphid
Diseases: puccinia rust, downy mildew.
Buyers want: good green colour (dry leaf).
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 5-20g/1000plants (A. schoenoprasum), 50g/1000plants (A. tuberosum)
Planting: sow 10-15 seeds per plug or pot, or sow same amount direct in pots.
Seeds to saleable plants: 24-30 weeks.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12-16 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 11 weeks.
Pests: aphid, thrip
Diseases: few problems.
|
|
|
|
| |
Alfalfa
(Medicago sativa ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (seeds, leaf, herb); (herb, sprouts)
Market size: (excluding acreage planted for fodder): 12,000 hectares (world); 5,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices and acreage up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 350 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained; pH 6.0-7.5
Crop duration: 1-4 years
|
|
(herb) |
Sowing rate: 9-13kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring, broadcast or sow in rows, 15-30cm apart. Two or more cuts at bud stage possible; last cut 6 weeks before killing frost. Heavy potash and phosphorus feeder.
Yield: dry herb 8-10,000kg/ha (years 1-4).
Pests: weevil, leafminer, leafhopper, snout beetle
Diseases: verticillium wilt, leafspot, phytophthora root rot.
Buyers want: organic product.
|
|
(sprouts) |
Planting: soak seeds overnight; drain, keep moist. Ready in 3-5 days.
Yield: 4kg(sprouts)/kg(seeds).
|
|
|
|
| |
Arnica
(A. montana, A. chamissonis) |
|
Market
|
Products: (flower, root); (flower);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 160 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume down
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 700-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, humus-rich, pH 7 (A. chamissonis), pH 4.5-6 (A. montana)
Crop duration: 3-5 years
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 1-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing not recommended. Sow in seedflats or plugs. Sow A. montana 16-20 weeks before transplanting to field; sow A. chamissonis 12 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 15-60cm between rows x 15-20cm within rows.
Harvest: flower (years 2-5), root (year 3 or 4).
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: chlorosis (yellow leaves) in A. montana caused by alkaline soil.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 8-10g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in seedflats or plugs 20 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8 weeks.
Pests: few problems, whitefly occasionally
Diseases: few problems.
|
|
|
|
| |
Lemon Balm
(Melissa officinalis) |
|
Market
|
Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 75 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 2000 seeds/gram
Exposure: sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained clay or sandy loam, pH 6 to 7.5
Crop duration: 2-4 years
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 7-9kg/ha (direct), 250-400g/ha (indirect, in plugs).
Planting: sowing in plugs in greenhouse in early spring till mid-summer is most common method; sow 6-8 weeks before transplanting to field. Direct sowing is not as common because weed control is more difficult; sow in early spring or late fall (to come up next spring).
Field spacing: 50-75cm between rows x 18-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry herb 5000kg/ha, fresh herb 10-25t/ha (years 1-3).
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: erisyphe powdery mildew, septoria blight, puccinia rust.
Buyers want: dry carefully to conserve oil in dried herb.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 3-5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in flats or plugs 11-14 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spidermite, thrip
Diseases: mildew.
|
|
|
|
| |
Basil
(Ocimum basilicum, and others ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (leaf, herb); (herb); (oil);
Market size: 10,000 hectares (world), 1,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 500-1000 (O. gratissimum 2600, O. kilamandscharicum 2800, O. sanctum 1500-2500) seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: rich, well-drained
Crop duration: 1 year (O. basilicum), 1-3 years (others)
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 20kg/ha (direct); 3-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in spring when nighttime temperatures exceed 10°C; or sow in flats or plugs 8 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 15-25cm within rows.
Yield: fresh herb 15,000kg/ha, dry herb 1,500-2,000kg/ha, oil 30kg/ha (year 1)
Pests: aphids, thrips
Diseases: O. basilicum varieties are highly susceptible to fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum) disease. Disease persists in soil for several years. Commercial field plantings should be sown with fusarium-tolerant Nufar F1. Hydroponic operations may choose fusarium-free varieties if equipment and facilities are free of fusarium (spreads by contaminated seeds and equipment). Other basil species (e.g. O. americanum and O. gratissimum) are fusarium-tolerant.
Buyers want: not less than 0.4% essential oil in dried product.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 3-4g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in final pots, or in plugs and later transplant to final pots. Nighttime temperature must not go below 10°C.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, thrips, aphids
Diseases: fusarium (see above).
|
|
|
|
| |
Bay Laurel
(Laurus nobilis ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (leaf); (leaf);
Market size: 2,000 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 1 seeds/gram
Exposure: sheltered position in full or half sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, moist
Crop duration: 20-50 years
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 30-60kg/ha
Planting: sow stratified seeds in beds or flats.
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: leaves dried flat for visual appearance.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 5kg/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or flats in March or April.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks (after stratification).
Plugs to saleable plants: 10 weeks to a year.
Pests: whitefly, scale, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
|
|
|
|
| |
Borage
(Borago officinalis ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (seed, herb, flower, root); (herb, flower, root), (seed);
Market size: 5,000 hectares (world); 2,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, acreage up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 50 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: best in well-drained, fertile, moist soil, but tolerates most soils, pH 5-8
Crop duration: 1 year
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 5-17 kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in late spring in rows 45-90cm apart, 30-45cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 300kg/ha; fresh flower 1,000-5,000kg/ha; seed 90-450kg/ha.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: 24% gamma lineolenic acid content in seed oil.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 50-80g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots or plugs.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
|
|
|
|
| |
Burdock
(Arctium lappa) |
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Market
|
Products: (root, leaf); (root);
Market size: 3,000 hectares (world), 170 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 60-110 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or part sun
Soil: deep, loose, humus-rich, pH 6-8
Crop duration: 1-2 years
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Sowing rate: 4 kg/ha (direct), 1.5kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring. Or, sow in beds or plugs and transplant to field in spring. For use as fresh vegetable, dig first year roots when young and tender at 3-5 months. For dry root production, dig in fall of second year.
Field spacing: 45-90cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry root 2,000kg/ha (years 2 or 3).
Pests: few problems, grasshopper
Diseases: few problems.
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Sowing rate: 20g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs 9-10 weeks before sale.
Seeds to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Calendula
(C. officinalis) |
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Market
|
Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 880 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 150 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained; can tolerate poor soil with low nitrogen.
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 3-9kg/ha (direct), 1kg/ha (indirect in plugs).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring or autumn; or sow in plugs 4-6 weeks before field planting. Seeds need light to germinate; cover seeds lightly or press in soil only.
Field spacing: 20-70cm between rows x 10-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 1-2,000kg/ha, fresh flower 6-9,000kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: blister-beetle, cabbage-looper, caterpillar, leafhopper
Diseases: leaf spot, aster-yellows.
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Sowing rate: 15g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or direct in pots 10-12 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 4-6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, aphid, thrip, mealybug
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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| |
Caraway
(Carum carvi) |
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Market
|
Products: (seed); (seed)
Market size: 19,000 hectares (world), 2,500 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 350-400 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, pH 6-7.8.
Crop duration: 1-2 years (depending on variety)
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Sowing rate: 8-11 kg/ha.
Planting: sow standard biennial type direct in field late June or early July; harvest following year in August. Sow annual type in May (suited for warmer regions with 5-6 frost-free months). Sometimes sown with annual cover crops such as coriander, dill, mustard the first year.
Field spacing: 10-50cm between rows x 4-15cm within rows.
Yield: seed 600-3,000kg/ha, oil 4.5-7kg/ha (year 1 or 2, depending on variety).
Pests: leafhopper
Diseases: aster yellows.
Buyers want: seed minimum 3% oil, maximum 12% moisture.
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| |
Catnip
(Nepeta cataria ) |
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Market
|
Products: (herb, leaf);
Market size: 2,400 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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|
Culture |
Seed density: 1500-1600 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or partial sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, sandy, pH 6.5
Crop duration: 2-5 years
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Sowing rate: 12 kg/ha (direct), 1kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring or late fall. Or, sow in plugs 8-10 weeks before field planting. Seed needs light to germinate; sow shallow 2-4mm deep.
Field spacing: 45-90cm between rows x 30-40cm within rows.
Harvest: leaf, herb (years 2-5).
Yield: dry herb 3-6t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
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|
Sowing rate: 3g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or seedflats 12-15 weeks before sale. Sow 2-4mm deep.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8-10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3-5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
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| |
Chamomile
(Matricaria recutita, Chamaemelum nobile ) |
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Market
|
Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 40,000 hectares (world), 4,800 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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|
Culture |
Seed density: 10,000-18,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained, moist to dry
Crop duration: 1 year (M. recutita), 2-3 years (C. nobile)
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Sowing rate: 3-4 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect)
Planting: german (M. recutita) is sown direct in field in spring or fall. Fall sowings germinate following spring. Roman (C. nobile) is sown direct or indirect in plugs which are later planted in field. Surface sow only (needs light to germinate). Hand harvesting flowers problematic in areas where labour cost is high; mechanical harvesting still unproven.
Field spacing: 10-50cm between rows x 10-25cm within rows, or broadcast sown.
Yield: dry flower 350-500kg/ha (M. recutita; year 1), 600-1000 kg/ha (C. nobile; years 1-3).
Pests: cnephasia moth
Diseases: aster yellows.
Buyers want: 0.4% or more volatile oil.
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Sowing rate: 1g/1000plants.
Planting: german (M. recutita) not normally sold in pots; roman (C. nobile) and its varieties are sold in pots or plugs. Seeds need light to germinate; surface sow only.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4-6 weeks.
Pests: aphid, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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| |
Chives
(Allium schoenoprasum, A. tuberosum ) |
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Market
|
Products: (leaf, flower); (leaf, flower);
Market size: 24,000 hectares (world), 3,200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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|
Culture |
Seed density: 750 (A. schoenoprasum), 200-300 (A. tuberosum) seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, humus-rich
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 2-3 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring, or sow indirect in plugs 12-16 weeks before field planting. Field must be free of quackgrass otherwise harvests will be contaminated.
Field spacing: 30cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: fresh leaf 10-20t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: aphid
Diseases: puccinia rust, downy mildew.
Buyers want: good green colour (dry leaf).
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Sowing rate: 5-20g/1000plants (A. schoenoprasum), 50g/1000plants (A. tuberosum)
Planting: sow 10-15 seeds per plug or pot, or sow same amount direct in pots.
Seeds to saleable plants: 24-30 weeks.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12-16 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 11 weeks.
Pests: aphid, thrip
Diseases: few problems.
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Comfrey
(Symphytum officinale, S. x uplandicum) |
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Market
|
Products: (leaf, root); (root, herb);
Market size: 1,700 hectares (world), 240 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 90-100 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or part sun
Soil: moist, wet or dry
Crop duration: 2-5 years
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Sowing rate: 600-900g/ha (indirect).
Planting: although seed can be sown direct, the high cost of seed dictates indirect sowing in plugs or seedbed and transplanting to field. Root cuttings (12,000/ha) of named cultivars (e.g. Bocking No. 14) recommended over seed.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 90cm within rows.
Yield: dry leaf 12t/ha (years 2-5), dry root 1,800kg/ha (year 3, 4 or 5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: comfrey rust.
Buyers want: low pyrrolizidine alkaloid content, particularly echimidine; leaf should be cut early to avoid alkaloid buildup.
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Sowing rate: 50-70g/1000plants.
Planting: sow S. officinale in plugs or seedflats 12-14 weeks before sale. S. x uplandicum and ornamental varieties are propagated by division or root cutting.
Seeds to saleable plants: 12 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, aphid
Diseases: comfrey rust.
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| |
Alfalfa
(Medicago sativa ) |
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Market
|
Products: (seeds, leaf, herb); (herb, sprouts)
Market size: (excluding acreage planted for fodder): 12,000 hectares (world); 5,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices and acreage up
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Culture |
Seed density: 350 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained; pH 6.0-7.5
Crop duration: 1-4 years
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(herb) |
Sowing rate: 9-13kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring, broadcast or sow in rows, 15-30cm apart. Two or more cuts at bud stage possible; last cut 6 weeks before killing frost. Heavy potash and phosphorus feeder.
Yield: dry herb 8-10,000kg/ha (years 1-4).
Pests: weevil, leafminer, leafhopper, snout beetle
Diseases: verticillium wilt, leafspot, phytophthora root rot.
Buyers want: organic product.
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(sprouts) |
Planting: soak seeds overnight; drain, keep moist. Ready in 3-5 days.
Yield: 4kg(sprouts)/kg(seeds).
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Arnica
(A. montana, A. chamissonis) |
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Market
|
Products: (flower, root); (flower);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 160 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume down
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Culture |
Seed density: 700-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, humus-rich, pH 7 (A. chamissonis), pH 4.5-6 (A. montana)
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 1-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing not recommended. Sow in seedflats or plugs. Sow A. montana 16-20 weeks before transplanting to field; sow A. chamissonis 12 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 15-60cm between rows x 15-20cm within rows.
Harvest: flower (years 2-5), root (year 3 or 4).
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: chlorosis (yellow leaves) in A. montana caused by alkaline soil.
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Sowing rate: 8-10g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in seedflats or plugs 20 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8 weeks.
Pests: few problems, whitefly occasionally
Diseases: few problems.
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| |
Lemon Balm
(Melissa officinalis) |
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Market
|
Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 75 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 2000 seeds/gram
Exposure: sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained clay or sandy loam, pH 6 to 7.5
Crop duration: 2-4 years
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Sowing rate: 7-9kg/ha (direct), 250-400g/ha (indirect, in plugs).
Planting: sowing in plugs in greenhouse in early spring till mid-summer is most common method; sow 6-8 weeks before transplanting to field. Direct sowing is not as common because weed control is more difficult; sow in early spring or late fall (to come up next spring).
Field spacing: 50-75cm between rows x 18-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry herb 5000kg/ha, fresh herb 10-25t/ha (years 1-3).
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: erisyphe powdery mildew, septoria blight, puccinia rust.
Buyers want: dry carefully to conserve oil in dried herb.
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Sowing rate: 3-5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in flats or plugs 11-14 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spidermite, thrip
Diseases: mildew.
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| |
Basil
(Ocimum basilicum, and others ) |
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Market
|
Products: (leaf, herb); (herb); (oil);
Market size: 10,000 hectares (world), 1,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 500-1000 (O. gratissimum 2600, O. kilamandscharicum 2800, O. sanctum 1500-2500) seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: rich, well-drained
Crop duration: 1 year (O. basilicum), 1-3 years (others)
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Sowing rate: 20kg/ha (direct); 3-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in spring when nighttime temperatures exceed 10°C; or sow in flats or plugs 8 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 15-25cm within rows.
Yield: fresh herb 15,000kg/ha, dry herb 1,500-2,000kg/ha, oil 30kg/ha (year 1)
Pests: aphids, thrips
Diseases: O. basilicum varieties are highly susceptible to fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum) disease. Disease persists in soil for several years. Commercial field plantings should be sown with fusarium-tolerant Nufar F1. Hydroponic operations may choose fusarium-free varieties if equipment and facilities are free of fusarium (spreads by contaminated seeds and equipment). Other basil species (e.g. O. americanum and O. gratissimum) are fusarium-tolerant.
Buyers want: not less than 0.4% essential oil in dried product.
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Sowing rate: 3-4g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in final pots, or in plugs and later transplant to final pots. Nighttime temperature must not go below 10°C.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, thrips, aphids
Diseases: fusarium (see above).
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| |
Bay Laurel
(Laurus nobilis ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (leaf);
Market size: 2,000 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 1 seeds/gram
Exposure: sheltered position in full or half sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, moist
Crop duration: 20-50 years
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Sowing rate: 30-60kg/ha
Planting: sow stratified seeds in beds or flats.
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: leaves dried flat for visual appearance.
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Sowing rate: 5kg/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or flats in March or April.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks (after stratification).
Plugs to saleable plants: 10 weeks to a year.
Pests: whitefly, scale, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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Borage
(Borago officinalis ) |
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Market
|
Products: (seed, herb, flower, root); (herb, flower, root), (seed);
Market size: 5,000 hectares (world); 2,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, acreage up
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Culture |
Seed density: 50 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: best in well-drained, fertile, moist soil, but tolerates most soils, pH 5-8
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 5-17 kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in late spring in rows 45-90cm apart, 30-45cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 300kg/ha; fresh flower 1,000-5,000kg/ha; seed 90-450kg/ha.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: 24% gamma lineolenic acid content in seed oil.
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Sowing rate: 50-80g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots or plugs.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
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| |
Burdock
(Arctium lappa) |
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Market
|
Products: (root, leaf); (root);
Market size: 3,000 hectares (world), 170 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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|
Culture |
Seed density: 60-110 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or part sun
Soil: deep, loose, humus-rich, pH 6-8
Crop duration: 1-2 years
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Sowing rate: 4 kg/ha (direct), 1.5kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring. Or, sow in beds or plugs and transplant to field in spring. For use as fresh vegetable, dig first year roots when young and tender at 3-5 months. For dry root production, dig in fall of second year.
Field spacing: 45-90cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry root 2,000kg/ha (years 2 or 3).
Pests: few problems, grasshopper
Diseases: few problems.
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Sowing rate: 20g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs 9-10 weeks before sale.
Seeds to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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| |
Calendula
(C. officinalis) |
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Market
|
Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 880 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
|
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Culture |
Seed density: 150 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained; can tolerate poor soil with low nitrogen.
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 3-9kg/ha (direct), 1kg/ha (indirect in plugs).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring or autumn; or sow in plugs 4-6 weeks before field planting. Seeds need light to germinate; cover seeds lightly or press in soil only.
Field spacing: 20-70cm between rows x 10-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 1-2,000kg/ha, fresh flower 6-9,000kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: blister-beetle, cabbage-looper, caterpillar, leafhopper
Diseases: leaf spot, aster-yellows.
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Sowing rate: 15g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or direct in pots 10-12 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 4-6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, aphid, thrip, mealybug
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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|
| |
Caraway
(Carum carvi) |
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Market
|
Products: (seed); (seed)
Market size: 19,000 hectares (world), 2,500 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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|
Culture |
Seed density: 350-400 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, pH 6-7.8.
Crop duration: 1-2 years (depending on variety)
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|
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Sowing rate: 8-11 kg/ha.
Planting: sow standard biennial type direct in field late June or early July; harvest following year in August. Sow annual type in May (suited for warmer regions with 5-6 frost-free months). Sometimes sown with annual cover crops such as coriander, dill, mustard the first year.
Field spacing: 10-50cm between rows x 4-15cm within rows.
Yield: seed 600-3,000kg/ha, oil 4.5-7kg/ha (year 1 or 2, depending on variety).
Pests: leafhopper
Diseases: aster yellows.
Buyers want: seed minimum 3% oil, maximum 12% moisture.
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| |
Catnip
(Nepeta cataria ) |
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Market
|
Products: (herb, leaf);
Market size: 2,400 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 1500-1600 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or partial sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, sandy, pH 6.5
Crop duration: 2-5 years
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Sowing rate: 12 kg/ha (direct), 1kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring or late fall. Or, sow in plugs 8-10 weeks before field planting. Seed needs light to germinate; sow shallow 2-4mm deep.
Field spacing: 45-90cm between rows x 30-40cm within rows.
Harvest: leaf, herb (years 2-5).
Yield: dry herb 3-6t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
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|
|
Sowing rate: 3g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or seedflats 12-15 weeks before sale. Sow 2-4mm deep.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8-10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3-5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
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| |
Chamomile
(Matricaria recutita, Chamaemelum nobile ) |
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Market
|
Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 40,000 hectares (world), 4,800 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 10,000-18,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained, moist to dry
Crop duration: 1 year (M. recutita), 2-3 years (C. nobile)
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|
|
Sowing rate: 3-4 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect)
Planting: german (M. recutita) is sown direct in field in spring or fall. Fall sowings germinate following spring. Roman (C. nobile) is sown direct or indirect in plugs which are later planted in field. Surface sow only (needs light to germinate). Hand harvesting flowers problematic in areas where labour cost is high; mechanical harvesting still unproven.
Field spacing: 10-50cm between rows x 10-25cm within rows, or broadcast sown.
Yield: dry flower 350-500kg/ha (M. recutita; year 1), 600-1000 kg/ha (C. nobile; years 1-3).
Pests: cnephasia moth
Diseases: aster yellows.
Buyers want: 0.4% or more volatile oil.
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|
|
Sowing rate: 1g/1000plants.
Planting: german (M. recutita) not normally sold in pots; roman (C. nobile) and its varieties are sold in pots or plugs. Seeds need light to germinate; surface sow only.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4-6 weeks.
Pests: aphid, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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Chives
(Allium schoenoprasum, A. tuberosum ) |
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Market
|
Products: (leaf, flower); (leaf, flower);
Market size: 24,000 hectares (world), 3,200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 750 (A. schoenoprasum), 200-300 (A. tuberosum) seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, humus-rich
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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|
|
Sowing rate: 2-3 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring, or sow indirect in plugs 12-16 weeks before field planting. Field must be free of quackgrass otherwise harvests will be contaminated.
Field spacing: 30cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: fresh leaf 10-20t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: aphid
Diseases: puccinia rust, downy mildew.
Buyers want: good green colour (dry leaf).
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|
|
Sowing rate: 5-20g/1000plants (A. schoenoprasum), 50g/1000plants (A. tuberosum)
Planting: sow 10-15 seeds per plug or pot, or sow same amount direct in pots.
Seeds to saleable plants: 24-30 weeks.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12-16 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 11 weeks.
Pests: aphid, thrip
Diseases: few problems.
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| |
Comfrey
(Symphytum officinale, S. x uplandicum) |
|
Market
|
Products: (leaf, root); (root, herb);
Market size: 1,700 hectares (world), 240 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 90-100 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or part sun
Soil: moist, wet or dry
Crop duration: 2-5 years
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 600-900g/ha (indirect).
Planting: although seed can be sown direct, the high cost of seed dictates indirect sowing in plugs or seedbed and transplanting to field. Root cuttings (12,000/ha) of named cultivars (e.g. Bocking No. 14) recommended over seed.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 90cm within rows.
Yield: dry leaf 12t/ha (years 2-5), dry root 1,800kg/ha (year 3, 4 or 5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: comfrey rust.
Buyers want: low pyrrolizidine alkaloid content, particularly echimidine; leaf should be cut early to avoid alkaloid buildup.
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|
|
Sowing rate: 50-70g/1000plants.
Planting: sow S. officinale in plugs or seedflats 12-14 weeks before sale. S. x uplandicum and ornamental varieties are propagated by division or root cutting.
Seeds to saleable plants: 12 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, aphid
Diseases: comfrey rust.
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| |
Coriander, Cilantro
(Coriandrum sativum) |
|
Market
|
Products: (seed); (herb); (seed, herb);
Market size: 600,000 hectares (world), 5,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 110-150 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun (seed), full or half sun (fresh herb)
Soil: deep, fertile, light or heavy, well-drained, pH 6.5-7.5
Crop duration: 1 year
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|
|
Sowing rate: 25 kg/ha (seed), 80 kg/ha (fresh herb).
Planting: for seed and seed oil production, sow direct in spring. For fresh herb (cilantro) and herb oil production sow early spring and fall; will bolt in hot weather.
Field spacing: 50-60cm between rows x 11-13cm between plants (seed), 20-25cm between rows x 8-10cm (fresh herb).
Yield: seed 900-1,500kg/ha, fresh herb 10-12t/ha, oil 1-9kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: thrip
Diseases: asters yellow, erysiphe powdery mildew, puccinia rust, pseudamonas, and sclerotina.
Buyers want: less than 12% moisture.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 200g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots; do not transplant – root disturbance causes plants to bolt early.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: aphid, thrip, mite, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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|
|
|
| |
Alfalfa
(Medicago sativa ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (seeds, leaf, herb); (herb, sprouts)
Market size: (excluding acreage planted for fodder): 12,000 hectares (world); 5,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices and acreage up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 350 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained; pH 6.0-7.5
Crop duration: 1-4 years
|
|
(herb) |
Sowing rate: 9-13kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring, broadcast or sow in rows, 15-30cm apart. Two or more cuts at bud stage possible; last cut 6 weeks before killing frost. Heavy potash and phosphorus feeder.
Yield: dry herb 8-10,000kg/ha (years 1-4).
Pests: weevil, leafminer, leafhopper, snout beetle
Diseases: verticillium wilt, leafspot, phytophthora root rot.
Buyers want: organic product.
|
|
(sprouts) |
Planting: soak seeds overnight; drain, keep moist. Ready in 3-5 days.
Yield: 4kg(sprouts)/kg(seeds).
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|
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| |
Arnica
(A. montana, A. chamissonis) |
|
Market
|
Products: (flower, root); (flower);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 160 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume down
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 700-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, humus-rich, pH 7 (A. chamissonis), pH 4.5-6 (A. montana)
Crop duration: 3-5 years
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 1-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing not recommended. Sow in seedflats or plugs. Sow A. montana 16-20 weeks before transplanting to field; sow A. chamissonis 12 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 15-60cm between rows x 15-20cm within rows.
Harvest: flower (years 2-5), root (year 3 or 4).
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: chlorosis (yellow leaves) in A. montana caused by alkaline soil.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 8-10g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in seedflats or plugs 20 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8 weeks.
Pests: few problems, whitefly occasionally
Diseases: few problems.
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|
|
|
| |
Lemon Balm
(Melissa officinalis) |
|
Market
|
Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 75 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 2000 seeds/gram
Exposure: sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained clay or sandy loam, pH 6 to 7.5
Crop duration: 2-4 years
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 7-9kg/ha (direct), 250-400g/ha (indirect, in plugs).
Planting: sowing in plugs in greenhouse in early spring till mid-summer is most common method; sow 6-8 weeks before transplanting to field. Direct sowing is not as common because weed control is more difficult; sow in early spring or late fall (to come up next spring).
Field spacing: 50-75cm between rows x 18-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry herb 5000kg/ha, fresh herb 10-25t/ha (years 1-3).
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: erisyphe powdery mildew, septoria blight, puccinia rust.
Buyers want: dry carefully to conserve oil in dried herb.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 3-5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in flats or plugs 11-14 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spidermite, thrip
Diseases: mildew.
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|
|
|
| |
Basil
(Ocimum basilicum, and others ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (leaf, herb); (herb); (oil);
Market size: 10,000 hectares (world), 1,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 500-1000 (O. gratissimum 2600, O. kilamandscharicum 2800, O. sanctum 1500-2500) seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: rich, well-drained
Crop duration: 1 year (O. basilicum), 1-3 years (others)
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 20kg/ha (direct); 3-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in spring when nighttime temperatures exceed 10°C; or sow in flats or plugs 8 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 15-25cm within rows.
Yield: fresh herb 15,000kg/ha, dry herb 1,500-2,000kg/ha, oil 30kg/ha (year 1)
Pests: aphids, thrips
Diseases: O. basilicum varieties are highly susceptible to fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum) disease. Disease persists in soil for several years. Commercial field plantings should be sown with fusarium-tolerant Nufar F1. Hydroponic operations may choose fusarium-free varieties if equipment and facilities are free of fusarium (spreads by contaminated seeds and equipment). Other basil species (e.g. O. americanum and O. gratissimum) are fusarium-tolerant.
Buyers want: not less than 0.4% essential oil in dried product.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 3-4g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in final pots, or in plugs and later transplant to final pots. Nighttime temperature must not go below 10°C.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, thrips, aphids
Diseases: fusarium (see above).
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|
|
|
| |
Bay Laurel
(Laurus nobilis ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (leaf); (leaf);
Market size: 2,000 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 1 seeds/gram
Exposure: sheltered position in full or half sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, moist
Crop duration: 20-50 years
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 30-60kg/ha
Planting: sow stratified seeds in beds or flats.
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: leaves dried flat for visual appearance.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 5kg/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or flats in March or April.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks (after stratification).
Plugs to saleable plants: 10 weeks to a year.
Pests: whitefly, scale, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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|
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|
| |
Borage
(Borago officinalis ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (seed, herb, flower, root); (herb, flower, root), (seed);
Market size: 5,000 hectares (world); 2,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, acreage up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 50 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: best in well-drained, fertile, moist soil, but tolerates most soils, pH 5-8
Crop duration: 1 year
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 5-17 kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in late spring in rows 45-90cm apart, 30-45cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 300kg/ha; fresh flower 1,000-5,000kg/ha; seed 90-450kg/ha.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: 24% gamma lineolenic acid content in seed oil.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 50-80g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots or plugs.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
|
|
|
|
| |
Burdock
(Arctium lappa) |
|
Market
|
Products: (root, leaf); (root);
Market size: 3,000 hectares (world), 170 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 60-110 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or part sun
Soil: deep, loose, humus-rich, pH 6-8
Crop duration: 1-2 years
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 4 kg/ha (direct), 1.5kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring. Or, sow in beds or plugs and transplant to field in spring. For use as fresh vegetable, dig first year roots when young and tender at 3-5 months. For dry root production, dig in fall of second year.
Field spacing: 45-90cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry root 2,000kg/ha (years 2 or 3).
Pests: few problems, grasshopper
Diseases: few problems.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 20g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs 9-10 weeks before sale.
Seeds to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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|
|
|
| |
Calendula
(C. officinalis) |
|
Market
|
Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 880 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 150 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained; can tolerate poor soil with low nitrogen.
Crop duration: 1 year
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 3-9kg/ha (direct), 1kg/ha (indirect in plugs).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring or autumn; or sow in plugs 4-6 weeks before field planting. Seeds need light to germinate; cover seeds lightly or press in soil only.
Field spacing: 20-70cm between rows x 10-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 1-2,000kg/ha, fresh flower 6-9,000kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: blister-beetle, cabbage-looper, caterpillar, leafhopper
Diseases: leaf spot, aster-yellows.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 15g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or direct in pots 10-12 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 4-6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, aphid, thrip, mealybug
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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|
|
|
| |
Caraway
(Carum carvi) |
|
Market
|
Products: (seed); (seed)
Market size: 19,000 hectares (world), 2,500 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 350-400 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, pH 6-7.8.
Crop duration: 1-2 years (depending on variety)
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 8-11 kg/ha.
Planting: sow standard biennial type direct in field late June or early July; harvest following year in August. Sow annual type in May (suited for warmer regions with 5-6 frost-free months). Sometimes sown with annual cover crops such as coriander, dill, mustard the first year.
Field spacing: 10-50cm between rows x 4-15cm within rows.
Yield: seed 600-3,000kg/ha, oil 4.5-7kg/ha (year 1 or 2, depending on variety).
Pests: leafhopper
Diseases: aster yellows.
Buyers want: seed minimum 3% oil, maximum 12% moisture.
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|
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|
|
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|
| |
Catnip
(Nepeta cataria ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (herb, leaf);
Market size: 2,400 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 1500-1600 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or partial sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, sandy, pH 6.5
Crop duration: 2-5 years
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 12 kg/ha (direct), 1kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring or late fall. Or, sow in plugs 8-10 weeks before field planting. Seed needs light to germinate; sow shallow 2-4mm deep.
Field spacing: 45-90cm between rows x 30-40cm within rows.
Harvest: leaf, herb (years 2-5).
Yield: dry herb 3-6t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 3g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or seedflats 12-15 weeks before sale. Sow 2-4mm deep.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8-10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3-5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
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|
|
|
| |
Chamomile
(Matricaria recutita, Chamaemelum nobile ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 40,000 hectares (world), 4,800 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 10,000-18,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained, moist to dry
Crop duration: 1 year (M. recutita), 2-3 years (C. nobile)
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 3-4 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect)
Planting: german (M. recutita) is sown direct in field in spring or fall. Fall sowings germinate following spring. Roman (C. nobile) is sown direct or indirect in plugs which are later planted in field. Surface sow only (needs light to germinate). Hand harvesting flowers problematic in areas where labour cost is high; mechanical harvesting still unproven.
Field spacing: 10-50cm between rows x 10-25cm within rows, or broadcast sown.
Yield: dry flower 350-500kg/ha (M. recutita; year 1), 600-1000 kg/ha (C. nobile; years 1-3).
Pests: cnephasia moth
Diseases: aster yellows.
Buyers want: 0.4% or more volatile oil.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 1g/1000plants.
Planting: german (M. recutita) not normally sold in pots; roman (C. nobile) and its varieties are sold in pots or plugs. Seeds need light to germinate; surface sow only.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4-6 weeks.
Pests: aphid, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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|
|
|
| |
Chives
(Allium schoenoprasum, A. tuberosum ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (leaf, flower); (leaf, flower);
Market size: 24,000 hectares (world), 3,200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 750 (A. schoenoprasum), 200-300 (A. tuberosum) seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, humus-rich
Crop duration: 3-5 years
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 2-3 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring, or sow indirect in plugs 12-16 weeks before field planting. Field must be free of quackgrass otherwise harvests will be contaminated.
Field spacing: 30cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: fresh leaf 10-20t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: aphid
Diseases: puccinia rust, downy mildew.
Buyers want: good green colour (dry leaf).
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 5-20g/1000plants (A. schoenoprasum), 50g/1000plants (A. tuberosum)
Planting: sow 10-15 seeds per plug or pot, or sow same amount direct in pots.
Seeds to saleable plants: 24-30 weeks.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12-16 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 11 weeks.
Pests: aphid, thrip
Diseases: few problems.
|
|
|
|
| |
Comfrey
(Symphytum officinale, S. x uplandicum) |
|
Market
|
Products: (leaf, root); (root, herb);
Market size: 1,700 hectares (world), 240 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 90-100 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or part sun
Soil: moist, wet or dry
Crop duration: 2-5 years
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 600-900g/ha (indirect).
Planting: although seed can be sown direct, the high cost of seed dictates indirect sowing in plugs or seedbed and transplanting to field. Root cuttings (12,000/ha) of named cultivars (e.g. Bocking No. 14) recommended over seed.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 90cm within rows.
Yield: dry leaf 12t/ha (years 2-5), dry root 1,800kg/ha (year 3, 4 or 5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: comfrey rust.
Buyers want: low pyrrolizidine alkaloid content, particularly echimidine; leaf should be cut early to avoid alkaloid buildup.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 50-70g/1000plants.
Planting: sow S. officinale in plugs or seedflats 12-14 weeks before sale. S. x uplandicum and ornamental varieties are propagated by division or root cutting.
Seeds to saleable plants: 12 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, aphid
Diseases: comfrey rust.
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|
|
|
| |
Coriander, Cilantro
(Coriandrum sativum) |
|
Market
|
Products: (seed); (herb); (seed, herb);
Market size: 600,000 hectares (world), 5,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 110-150 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun (seed), full or half sun (fresh herb)
Soil: deep, fertile, light or heavy, well-drained, pH 6.5-7.5
Crop duration: 1 year
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 25 kg/ha (seed), 80 kg/ha (fresh herb).
Planting: for seed and seed oil production, sow direct in spring. For fresh herb (cilantro) and herb oil production sow early spring and fall; will bolt in hot weather.
Field spacing: 50-60cm between rows x 11-13cm between plants (seed), 20-25cm between rows x 8-10cm (fresh herb).
Yield: seed 900-1,500kg/ha, fresh herb 10-12t/ha, oil 1-9kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: thrip
Diseases: asters yellow, erysiphe powdery mildew, puccinia rust, pseudamonas, and sclerotina.
Buyers want: less than 12% moisture.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 200g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots; do not transplant – root disturbance causes plants to bolt early.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: aphid, thrip, mite, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
|
|
|
|
| |
Dandelion
(Taraxacum officinale) |
|
Market
|
Products: (root, herb); (leaf)
Market size: 7,000 hectares (world); 500 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 1200-1900 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: most soils
Crop duration: 2 years (root), 1-4 years (fresh leaf)
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 1-3kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring or late summer. Fresh leaf gathered as vegetable spring, summer and fall. Herb for drying harvested spring or summer. Roots dug late fall.
Field spacing: 45cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: dry root 1100-1700kg/ha (year 2).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: water-soluble extractive not less than 30%.
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|
|
|
|
|
|
| |
Alfalfa
(Medicago sativa ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (seeds, leaf, herb); (herb, sprouts)
Market size: (excluding acreage planted for fodder): 12,000 hectares (world); 5,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices and acreage up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 350 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained; pH 6.0-7.5
Crop duration: 1-4 years
|
|
(herb) |
Sowing rate: 9-13kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring, broadcast or sow in rows, 15-30cm apart. Two or more cuts at bud stage possible; last cut 6 weeks before killing frost. Heavy potash and phosphorus feeder.
Yield: dry herb 8-10,000kg/ha (years 1-4).
Pests: weevil, leafminer, leafhopper, snout beetle
Diseases: verticillium wilt, leafspot, phytophthora root rot.
Buyers want: organic product.
|
|
(sprouts) |
Planting: soak seeds overnight; drain, keep moist. Ready in 3-5 days.
Yield: 4kg(sprouts)/kg(seeds).
|
|
|
|
| |
Arnica
(A. montana, A. chamissonis) |
|
Market
|
Products: (flower, root); (flower);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 160 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume down
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 700-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, humus-rich, pH 7 (A. chamissonis), pH 4.5-6 (A. montana)
Crop duration: 3-5 years
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 1-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing not recommended. Sow in seedflats or plugs. Sow A. montana 16-20 weeks before transplanting to field; sow A. chamissonis 12 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 15-60cm between rows x 15-20cm within rows.
Harvest: flower (years 2-5), root (year 3 or 4).
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: chlorosis (yellow leaves) in A. montana caused by alkaline soil.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 8-10g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in seedflats or plugs 20 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8 weeks.
Pests: few problems, whitefly occasionally
Diseases: few problems.
|
|
|
|
| |
Lemon Balm
(Melissa officinalis) |
|
Market
|
Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 75 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 2000 seeds/gram
Exposure: sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained clay or sandy loam, pH 6 to 7.5
Crop duration: 2-4 years
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 7-9kg/ha (direct), 250-400g/ha (indirect, in plugs).
Planting: sowing in plugs in greenhouse in early spring till mid-summer is most common method; sow 6-8 weeks before transplanting to field. Direct sowing is not as common because weed control is more difficult; sow in early spring or late fall (to come up next spring).
Field spacing: 50-75cm between rows x 18-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry herb 5000kg/ha, fresh herb 10-25t/ha (years 1-3).
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: erisyphe powdery mildew, septoria blight, puccinia rust.
Buyers want: dry carefully to conserve oil in dried herb.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 3-5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in flats or plugs 11-14 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spidermite, thrip
Diseases: mildew.
|
|
|
|
| |
Basil
(Ocimum basilicum, and others ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (leaf, herb); (herb); (oil);
Market size: 10,000 hectares (world), 1,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 500-1000 (O. gratissimum 2600, O. kilamandscharicum 2800, O. sanctum 1500-2500) seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: rich, well-drained
Crop duration: 1 year (O. basilicum), 1-3 years (others)
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 20kg/ha (direct); 3-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in spring when nighttime temperatures exceed 10°C; or sow in flats or plugs 8 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 15-25cm within rows.
Yield: fresh herb 15,000kg/ha, dry herb 1,500-2,000kg/ha, oil 30kg/ha (year 1)
Pests: aphids, thrips
Diseases: O. basilicum varieties are highly susceptible to fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum) disease. Disease persists in soil for several years. Commercial field plantings should be sown with fusarium-tolerant Nufar F1. Hydroponic operations may choose fusarium-free varieties if equipment and facilities are free of fusarium (spreads by contaminated seeds and equipment). Other basil species (e.g. O. americanum and O. gratissimum) are fusarium-tolerant.
Buyers want: not less than 0.4% essential oil in dried product.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 3-4g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in final pots, or in plugs and later transplant to final pots. Nighttime temperature must not go below 10°C.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, thrips, aphids
Diseases: fusarium (see above).
|
|
|
|
| |
Bay Laurel
(Laurus nobilis ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (leaf); (leaf);
Market size: 2,000 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 1 seeds/gram
Exposure: sheltered position in full or half sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, moist
Crop duration: 20-50 years
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 30-60kg/ha
Planting: sow stratified seeds in beds or flats.
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: leaves dried flat for visual appearance.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 5kg/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or flats in March or April.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks (after stratification).
Plugs to saleable plants: 10 weeks to a year.
Pests: whitefly, scale, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
|
|
|
|
| |
Borage
(Borago officinalis ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (seed, herb, flower, root); (herb, flower, root), (seed);
Market size: 5,000 hectares (world); 2,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, acreage up
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Culture |
Seed density: 50 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: best in well-drained, fertile, moist soil, but tolerates most soils, pH 5-8
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 5-17 kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in late spring in rows 45-90cm apart, 30-45cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 300kg/ha; fresh flower 1,000-5,000kg/ha; seed 90-450kg/ha.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: 24% gamma lineolenic acid content in seed oil.
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Sowing rate: 50-80g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots or plugs.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
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Burdock
(Arctium lappa) |
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Market
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Products: (root, leaf); (root);
Market size: 3,000 hectares (world), 170 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 60-110 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or part sun
Soil: deep, loose, humus-rich, pH 6-8
Crop duration: 1-2 years
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Sowing rate: 4 kg/ha (direct), 1.5kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring. Or, sow in beds or plugs and transplant to field in spring. For use as fresh vegetable, dig first year roots when young and tender at 3-5 months. For dry root production, dig in fall of second year.
Field spacing: 45-90cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry root 2,000kg/ha (years 2 or 3).
Pests: few problems, grasshopper
Diseases: few problems.
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Sowing rate: 20g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs 9-10 weeks before sale.
Seeds to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Calendula
(C. officinalis) |
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Market
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Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 880 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 150 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained; can tolerate poor soil with low nitrogen.
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 3-9kg/ha (direct), 1kg/ha (indirect in plugs).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring or autumn; or sow in plugs 4-6 weeks before field planting. Seeds need light to germinate; cover seeds lightly or press in soil only.
Field spacing: 20-70cm between rows x 10-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 1-2,000kg/ha, fresh flower 6-9,000kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: blister-beetle, cabbage-looper, caterpillar, leafhopper
Diseases: leaf spot, aster-yellows.
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Sowing rate: 15g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or direct in pots 10-12 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 4-6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, aphid, thrip, mealybug
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Caraway
(Carum carvi) |
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Market
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Products: (seed); (seed)
Market size: 19,000 hectares (world), 2,500 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 350-400 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, pH 6-7.8.
Crop duration: 1-2 years (depending on variety)
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Sowing rate: 8-11 kg/ha.
Planting: sow standard biennial type direct in field late June or early July; harvest following year in August. Sow annual type in May (suited for warmer regions with 5-6 frost-free months). Sometimes sown with annual cover crops such as coriander, dill, mustard the first year.
Field spacing: 10-50cm between rows x 4-15cm within rows.
Yield: seed 600-3,000kg/ha, oil 4.5-7kg/ha (year 1 or 2, depending on variety).
Pests: leafhopper
Diseases: aster yellows.
Buyers want: seed minimum 3% oil, maximum 12% moisture.
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Catnip
(Nepeta cataria ) |
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Market
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Products: (herb, leaf);
Market size: 2,400 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 1500-1600 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or partial sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, sandy, pH 6.5
Crop duration: 2-5 years
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Sowing rate: 12 kg/ha (direct), 1kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring or late fall. Or, sow in plugs 8-10 weeks before field planting. Seed needs light to germinate; sow shallow 2-4mm deep.
Field spacing: 45-90cm between rows x 30-40cm within rows.
Harvest: leaf, herb (years 2-5).
Yield: dry herb 3-6t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
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Sowing rate: 3g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or seedflats 12-15 weeks before sale. Sow 2-4mm deep.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8-10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3-5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
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Chamomile
(Matricaria recutita, Chamaemelum nobile ) |
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Market
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Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 40,000 hectares (world), 4,800 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 10,000-18,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained, moist to dry
Crop duration: 1 year (M. recutita), 2-3 years (C. nobile)
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Sowing rate: 3-4 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect)
Planting: german (M. recutita) is sown direct in field in spring or fall. Fall sowings germinate following spring. Roman (C. nobile) is sown direct or indirect in plugs which are later planted in field. Surface sow only (needs light to germinate). Hand harvesting flowers problematic in areas where labour cost is high; mechanical harvesting still unproven.
Field spacing: 10-50cm between rows x 10-25cm within rows, or broadcast sown.
Yield: dry flower 350-500kg/ha (M. recutita; year 1), 600-1000 kg/ha (C. nobile; years 1-3).
Pests: cnephasia moth
Diseases: aster yellows.
Buyers want: 0.4% or more volatile oil.
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Sowing rate: 1g/1000plants.
Planting: german (M. recutita) not normally sold in pots; roman (C. nobile) and its varieties are sold in pots or plugs. Seeds need light to germinate; surface sow only.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4-6 weeks.
Pests: aphid, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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Chives
(Allium schoenoprasum, A. tuberosum ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf, flower); (leaf, flower);
Market size: 24,000 hectares (world), 3,200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 750 (A. schoenoprasum), 200-300 (A. tuberosum) seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, humus-rich
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 2-3 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring, or sow indirect in plugs 12-16 weeks before field planting. Field must be free of quackgrass otherwise harvests will be contaminated.
Field spacing: 30cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: fresh leaf 10-20t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: aphid
Diseases: puccinia rust, downy mildew.
Buyers want: good green colour (dry leaf).
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Sowing rate: 5-20g/1000plants (A. schoenoprasum), 50g/1000plants (A. tuberosum)
Planting: sow 10-15 seeds per plug or pot, or sow same amount direct in pots.
Seeds to saleable plants: 24-30 weeks.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12-16 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 11 weeks.
Pests: aphid, thrip
Diseases: few problems.
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Comfrey
(Symphytum officinale, S. x uplandicum) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf, root); (root, herb);
Market size: 1,700 hectares (world), 240 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 90-100 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or part sun
Soil: moist, wet or dry
Crop duration: 2-5 years
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Sowing rate: 600-900g/ha (indirect).
Planting: although seed can be sown direct, the high cost of seed dictates indirect sowing in plugs or seedbed and transplanting to field. Root cuttings (12,000/ha) of named cultivars (e.g. Bocking No. 14) recommended over seed.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 90cm within rows.
Yield: dry leaf 12t/ha (years 2-5), dry root 1,800kg/ha (year 3, 4 or 5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: comfrey rust.
Buyers want: low pyrrolizidine alkaloid content, particularly echimidine; leaf should be cut early to avoid alkaloid buildup.
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Sowing rate: 50-70g/1000plants.
Planting: sow S. officinale in plugs or seedflats 12-14 weeks before sale. S. x uplandicum and ornamental varieties are propagated by division or root cutting.
Seeds to saleable plants: 12 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, aphid
Diseases: comfrey rust.
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Coriander, Cilantro
(Coriandrum sativum) |
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Market
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Products: (seed); (herb); (seed, herb);
Market size: 600,000 hectares (world), 5,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 110-150 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun (seed), full or half sun (fresh herb)
Soil: deep, fertile, light or heavy, well-drained, pH 6.5-7.5
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 25 kg/ha (seed), 80 kg/ha (fresh herb).
Planting: for seed and seed oil production, sow direct in spring. For fresh herb (cilantro) and herb oil production sow early spring and fall; will bolt in hot weather.
Field spacing: 50-60cm between rows x 11-13cm between plants (seed), 20-25cm between rows x 8-10cm (fresh herb).
Yield: seed 900-1,500kg/ha, fresh herb 10-12t/ha, oil 1-9kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: thrip
Diseases: asters yellow, erysiphe powdery mildew, puccinia rust, pseudamonas, and sclerotina.
Buyers want: less than 12% moisture.
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Sowing rate: 200g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots; do not transplant – root disturbance causes plants to bolt early.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: aphid, thrip, mite, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Dandelion
(Taraxacum officinale) |
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Market
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Products: (root, herb); (leaf)
Market size: 7,000 hectares (world); 500 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 1200-1900 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: most soils
Crop duration: 2 years (root), 1-4 years (fresh leaf)
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Sowing rate: 1-3kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring or late summer. Fresh leaf gathered as vegetable spring, summer and fall. Herb for drying harvested spring or summer. Roots dug late fall.
Field spacing: 45cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: dry root 1100-1700kg/ha (year 2).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: water-soluble extractive not less than 30%.
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Dill
(Anethum graveolens, A. sowa ) |
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Market
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Products: (seed, herb); (leaf); (leaf, seed);
Market size: 37,000 hectares (world), 4,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices same, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 400-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, moderately rich, loose soil, pH 5.5-6.5
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 9-12 kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in spring.
Field spacing: 25-50cm between rows; thin to 10cm within rows for fresh herb production or 2-3cm within rows for seed production.
Yield: seed 600-900kg/ha, fresh herb 2500-5000kg/ha, dried herb 1000kg/ha, oil 50-110kg/ha.
Pests: aphid, tarnished plant bug
Diseases: powdery mildew, leafspot, aster yellows.
Buyers want: good green colour (dried leaf).
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Sowing rate: 15-40g/1000pots.
Planting: do not transplant; sow direct in pots, 8-20 seeds per pot.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: aphid
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Alfalfa
(Medicago sativa ) |
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Market
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Products: (seeds, leaf, herb); (herb, sprouts)
Market size: (excluding acreage planted for fodder): 12,000 hectares (world); 5,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices and acreage up
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Culture |
Seed density: 350 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained; pH 6.0-7.5
Crop duration: 1-4 years
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(herb) |
Sowing rate: 9-13kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring, broadcast or sow in rows, 15-30cm apart. Two or more cuts at bud stage possible; last cut 6 weeks before killing frost. Heavy potash and phosphorus feeder.
Yield: dry herb 8-10,000kg/ha (years 1-4).
Pests: weevil, leafminer, leafhopper, snout beetle
Diseases: verticillium wilt, leafspot, phytophthora root rot.
Buyers want: organic product.
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(sprouts) |
Planting: soak seeds overnight; drain, keep moist. Ready in 3-5 days.
Yield: 4kg(sprouts)/kg(seeds).
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Arnica
(A. montana, A. chamissonis) |
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Market
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Products: (flower, root); (flower);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 160 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume down
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Culture |
Seed density: 700-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, humus-rich, pH 7 (A. chamissonis), pH 4.5-6 (A. montana)
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 1-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing not recommended. Sow in seedflats or plugs. Sow A. montana 16-20 weeks before transplanting to field; sow A. chamissonis 12 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 15-60cm between rows x 15-20cm within rows.
Harvest: flower (years 2-5), root (year 3 or 4).
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: chlorosis (yellow leaves) in A. montana caused by alkaline soil.
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Sowing rate: 8-10g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in seedflats or plugs 20 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8 weeks.
Pests: few problems, whitefly occasionally
Diseases: few problems.
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Lemon Balm
(Melissa officinalis) |
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Market
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Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 75 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 2000 seeds/gram
Exposure: sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained clay or sandy loam, pH 6 to 7.5
Crop duration: 2-4 years
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Sowing rate: 7-9kg/ha (direct), 250-400g/ha (indirect, in plugs).
Planting: sowing in plugs in greenhouse in early spring till mid-summer is most common method; sow 6-8 weeks before transplanting to field. Direct sowing is not as common because weed control is more difficult; sow in early spring or late fall (to come up next spring).
Field spacing: 50-75cm between rows x 18-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry herb 5000kg/ha, fresh herb 10-25t/ha (years 1-3).
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: erisyphe powdery mildew, septoria blight, puccinia rust.
Buyers want: dry carefully to conserve oil in dried herb.
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Sowing rate: 3-5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in flats or plugs 11-14 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spidermite, thrip
Diseases: mildew.
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Basil
(Ocimum basilicum, and others ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf, herb); (herb); (oil);
Market size: 10,000 hectares (world), 1,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 500-1000 (O. gratissimum 2600, O. kilamandscharicum 2800, O. sanctum 1500-2500) seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: rich, well-drained
Crop duration: 1 year (O. basilicum), 1-3 years (others)
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Sowing rate: 20kg/ha (direct); 3-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in spring when nighttime temperatures exceed 10°C; or sow in flats or plugs 8 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 15-25cm within rows.
Yield: fresh herb 15,000kg/ha, dry herb 1,500-2,000kg/ha, oil 30kg/ha (year 1)
Pests: aphids, thrips
Diseases: O. basilicum varieties are highly susceptible to fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum) disease. Disease persists in soil for several years. Commercial field plantings should be sown with fusarium-tolerant Nufar F1. Hydroponic operations may choose fusarium-free varieties if equipment and facilities are free of fusarium (spreads by contaminated seeds and equipment). Other basil species (e.g. O. americanum and O. gratissimum) are fusarium-tolerant.
Buyers want: not less than 0.4% essential oil in dried product.
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Sowing rate: 3-4g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in final pots, or in plugs and later transplant to final pots. Nighttime temperature must not go below 10°C.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, thrips, aphids
Diseases: fusarium (see above).
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Bay Laurel
(Laurus nobilis ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (leaf);
Market size: 2,000 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 1 seeds/gram
Exposure: sheltered position in full or half sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, moist
Crop duration: 20-50 years
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Sowing rate: 30-60kg/ha
Planting: sow stratified seeds in beds or flats.
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: leaves dried flat for visual appearance.
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Sowing rate: 5kg/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or flats in March or April.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks (after stratification).
Plugs to saleable plants: 10 weeks to a year.
Pests: whitefly, scale, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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Borage
(Borago officinalis ) |
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Market
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Products: (seed, herb, flower, root); (herb, flower, root), (seed);
Market size: 5,000 hectares (world); 2,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, acreage up
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Culture |
Seed density: 50 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: best in well-drained, fertile, moist soil, but tolerates most soils, pH 5-8
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 5-17 kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in late spring in rows 45-90cm apart, 30-45cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 300kg/ha; fresh flower 1,000-5,000kg/ha; seed 90-450kg/ha.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: 24% gamma lineolenic acid content in seed oil.
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Sowing rate: 50-80g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots or plugs.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
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Burdock
(Arctium lappa) |
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Market
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Products: (root, leaf); (root);
Market size: 3,000 hectares (world), 170 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 60-110 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or part sun
Soil: deep, loose, humus-rich, pH 6-8
Crop duration: 1-2 years
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Sowing rate: 4 kg/ha (direct), 1.5kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring. Or, sow in beds or plugs and transplant to field in spring. For use as fresh vegetable, dig first year roots when young and tender at 3-5 months. For dry root production, dig in fall of second year.
Field spacing: 45-90cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry root 2,000kg/ha (years 2 or 3).
Pests: few problems, grasshopper
Diseases: few problems.
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Sowing rate: 20g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs 9-10 weeks before sale.
Seeds to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Calendula
(C. officinalis) |
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Market
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Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 880 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 150 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained; can tolerate poor soil with low nitrogen.
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 3-9kg/ha (direct), 1kg/ha (indirect in plugs).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring or autumn; or sow in plugs 4-6 weeks before field planting. Seeds need light to germinate; cover seeds lightly or press in soil only.
Field spacing: 20-70cm between rows x 10-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 1-2,000kg/ha, fresh flower 6-9,000kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: blister-beetle, cabbage-looper, caterpillar, leafhopper
Diseases: leaf spot, aster-yellows.
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Sowing rate: 15g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or direct in pots 10-12 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 4-6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, aphid, thrip, mealybug
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Caraway
(Carum carvi) |
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Market
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Products: (seed); (seed)
Market size: 19,000 hectares (world), 2,500 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 350-400 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, pH 6-7.8.
Crop duration: 1-2 years (depending on variety)
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Sowing rate: 8-11 kg/ha.
Planting: sow standard biennial type direct in field late June or early July; harvest following year in August. Sow annual type in May (suited for warmer regions with 5-6 frost-free months). Sometimes sown with annual cover crops such as coriander, dill, mustard the first year.
Field spacing: 10-50cm between rows x 4-15cm within rows.
Yield: seed 600-3,000kg/ha, oil 4.5-7kg/ha (year 1 or 2, depending on variety).
Pests: leafhopper
Diseases: aster yellows.
Buyers want: seed minimum 3% oil, maximum 12% moisture.
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Catnip
(Nepeta cataria ) |
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Market
|
Products: (herb, leaf);
Market size: 2,400 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 1500-1600 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or partial sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, sandy, pH 6.5
Crop duration: 2-5 years
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Sowing rate: 12 kg/ha (direct), 1kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring or late fall. Or, sow in plugs 8-10 weeks before field planting. Seed needs light to germinate; sow shallow 2-4mm deep.
Field spacing: 45-90cm between rows x 30-40cm within rows.
Harvest: leaf, herb (years 2-5).
Yield: dry herb 3-6t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
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Sowing rate: 3g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or seedflats 12-15 weeks before sale. Sow 2-4mm deep.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8-10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3-5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
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Chamomile
(Matricaria recutita, Chamaemelum nobile ) |
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Market
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Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 40,000 hectares (world), 4,800 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 10,000-18,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained, moist to dry
Crop duration: 1 year (M. recutita), 2-3 years (C. nobile)
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Sowing rate: 3-4 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect)
Planting: german (M. recutita) is sown direct in field in spring or fall. Fall sowings germinate following spring. Roman (C. nobile) is sown direct or indirect in plugs which are later planted in field. Surface sow only (needs light to germinate). Hand harvesting flowers problematic in areas where labour cost is high; mechanical harvesting still unproven.
Field spacing: 10-50cm between rows x 10-25cm within rows, or broadcast sown.
Yield: dry flower 350-500kg/ha (M. recutita; year 1), 600-1000 kg/ha (C. nobile; years 1-3).
Pests: cnephasia moth
Diseases: aster yellows.
Buyers want: 0.4% or more volatile oil.
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Sowing rate: 1g/1000plants.
Planting: german (M. recutita) not normally sold in pots; roman (C. nobile) and its varieties are sold in pots or plugs. Seeds need light to germinate; surface sow only.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4-6 weeks.
Pests: aphid, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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Chives
(Allium schoenoprasum, A. tuberosum ) |
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Market
|
Products: (leaf, flower); (leaf, flower);
Market size: 24,000 hectares (world), 3,200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 750 (A. schoenoprasum), 200-300 (A. tuberosum) seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, humus-rich
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 2-3 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring, or sow indirect in plugs 12-16 weeks before field planting. Field must be free of quackgrass otherwise harvests will be contaminated.
Field spacing: 30cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: fresh leaf 10-20t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: aphid
Diseases: puccinia rust, downy mildew.
Buyers want: good green colour (dry leaf).
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Sowing rate: 5-20g/1000plants (A. schoenoprasum), 50g/1000plants (A. tuberosum)
Planting: sow 10-15 seeds per plug or pot, or sow same amount direct in pots.
Seeds to saleable plants: 24-30 weeks.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12-16 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 11 weeks.
Pests: aphid, thrip
Diseases: few problems.
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Comfrey
(Symphytum officinale, S. x uplandicum) |
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Market
|
Products: (leaf, root); (root, herb);
Market size: 1,700 hectares (world), 240 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 90-100 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or part sun
Soil: moist, wet or dry
Crop duration: 2-5 years
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Sowing rate: 600-900g/ha (indirect).
Planting: although seed can be sown direct, the high cost of seed dictates indirect sowing in plugs or seedbed and transplanting to field. Root cuttings (12,000/ha) of named cultivars (e.g. Bocking No. 14) recommended over seed.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 90cm within rows.
Yield: dry leaf 12t/ha (years 2-5), dry root 1,800kg/ha (year 3, 4 or 5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: comfrey rust.
Buyers want: low pyrrolizidine alkaloid content, particularly echimidine; leaf should be cut early to avoid alkaloid buildup.
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Sowing rate: 50-70g/1000plants.
Planting: sow S. officinale in plugs or seedflats 12-14 weeks before sale. S. x uplandicum and ornamental varieties are propagated by division or root cutting.
Seeds to saleable plants: 12 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, aphid
Diseases: comfrey rust.
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Coriander, Cilantro
(Coriandrum sativum) |
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Market
|
Products: (seed); (herb); (seed, herb);
Market size: 600,000 hectares (world), 5,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 110-150 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun (seed), full or half sun (fresh herb)
Soil: deep, fertile, light or heavy, well-drained, pH 6.5-7.5
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 25 kg/ha (seed), 80 kg/ha (fresh herb).
Planting: for seed and seed oil production, sow direct in spring. For fresh herb (cilantro) and herb oil production sow early spring and fall; will bolt in hot weather.
Field spacing: 50-60cm between rows x 11-13cm between plants (seed), 20-25cm between rows x 8-10cm (fresh herb).
Yield: seed 900-1,500kg/ha, fresh herb 10-12t/ha, oil 1-9kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: thrip
Diseases: asters yellow, erysiphe powdery mildew, puccinia rust, pseudamonas, and sclerotina.
Buyers want: less than 12% moisture.
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Sowing rate: 200g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots; do not transplant – root disturbance causes plants to bolt early.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: aphid, thrip, mite, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Dandelion
(Taraxacum officinale) |
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Market
|
Products: (root, herb); (leaf)
Market size: 7,000 hectares (world); 500 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 1200-1900 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: most soils
Crop duration: 2 years (root), 1-4 years (fresh leaf)
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Sowing rate: 1-3kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring or late summer. Fresh leaf gathered as vegetable spring, summer and fall. Herb for drying harvested spring or summer. Roots dug late fall.
Field spacing: 45cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: dry root 1100-1700kg/ha (year 2).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: water-soluble extractive not less than 30%.
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Dill
(Anethum graveolens, A. sowa ) |
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Market
|
Products: (seed, herb); (leaf); (leaf, seed);
Market size: 37,000 hectares (world), 4,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices same, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 400-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, moderately rich, loose soil, pH 5.5-6.5
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 9-12 kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in spring.
Field spacing: 25-50cm between rows; thin to 10cm within rows for fresh herb production or 2-3cm within rows for seed production.
Yield: seed 600-900kg/ha, fresh herb 2500-5000kg/ha, dried herb 1000kg/ha, oil 50-110kg/ha.
Pests: aphid, tarnished plant bug
Diseases: powdery mildew, leafspot, aster yellows.
Buyers want: good green colour (dried leaf).
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Sowing rate: 15-40g/1000pots.
Planting: do not transplant; sow direct in pots, 8-20 seeds per pot.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: aphid
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Echinacea
(Echinacea purpurea, E. angustifolia, E. pallida ) |
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Market
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Products: (root, herb, flower, seed); (herb);
Market size: 16,000 hectares (world), 4,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices down, acreage up; market for E. purpurea herb is weak.
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Culture |
Seed density: 160-500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained, pH 6-7.5
Crop duration: 3-4 years
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Sowing rate: 14-18 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: E. purpurea seeds do not require pretreatment. Can be started in plugs and transplanted to the field, which is the preferred method, or can be sown direct in the field. Sow E. purpurea 100-120 days before field planting; sow E. angustifolia and E. pallida 150 days before planting. E. angustifolia and E. pallida germination benefits from pretreatment; stratify at 5°C for 4-12 weeks with light. Pretreatment with Ethrel (1 millimolar for 2 weeks), or with bleach (1% for 10 min.) improves E. angustifolia germination.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 20-45cm within rows.
Yield: E. purpurea herb 6,500-11,000kg/ha (years 2-4); E. purpurea root 1000kg/ha (year 4); E. angustifolia root 1100kg/ha (year 4); no data for E. pallida root.
Pests: leafhopper
Diseases: aster yellows (spread by leafhoppers), sclerotinia stem and root rot, botrytis.
Buyers want: certificate of botanical identity required for E. angustifolia; echinacoside 1.4% (roots).
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Sowing rate: 10g/1000plants.
Planting: sow 14 weeks (E. purpurea) to 22 weeks (E. angustifolia, E. pallida) before sale. Stratify or pretreat E. angustifolia and E. pallida seed before sowing (see above).
Seeds to finished plugs: 8-12 weeks (after pretreatment).
Plugs to saleable plants: 6-10 weeks.
Pests: few problems, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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| |
Alfalfa
(Medicago sativa ) |
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Market
|
Products: (seeds, leaf, herb); (herb, sprouts)
Market size: (excluding acreage planted for fodder): 12,000 hectares (world); 5,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices and acreage up
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Culture |
Seed density: 350 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained; pH 6.0-7.5
Crop duration: 1-4 years
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(herb) |
Sowing rate: 9-13kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring, broadcast or sow in rows, 15-30cm apart. Two or more cuts at bud stage possible; last cut 6 weeks before killing frost. Heavy potash and phosphorus feeder.
Yield: dry herb 8-10,000kg/ha (years 1-4).
Pests: weevil, leafminer, leafhopper, snout beetle
Diseases: verticillium wilt, leafspot, phytophthora root rot.
Buyers want: organic product.
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(sprouts) |
Planting: soak seeds overnight; drain, keep moist. Ready in 3-5 days.
Yield: 4kg(sprouts)/kg(seeds).
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Arnica
(A. montana, A. chamissonis) |
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Market
|
Products: (flower, root); (flower);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 160 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume down
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Culture |
Seed density: 700-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, humus-rich, pH 7 (A. chamissonis), pH 4.5-6 (A. montana)
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 1-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing not recommended. Sow in seedflats or plugs. Sow A. montana 16-20 weeks before transplanting to field; sow A. chamissonis 12 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 15-60cm between rows x 15-20cm within rows.
Harvest: flower (years 2-5), root (year 3 or 4).
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: chlorosis (yellow leaves) in A. montana caused by alkaline soil.
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Sowing rate: 8-10g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in seedflats or plugs 20 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8 weeks.
Pests: few problems, whitefly occasionally
Diseases: few problems.
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Lemon Balm
(Melissa officinalis) |
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Market
|
Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 75 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 2000 seeds/gram
Exposure: sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained clay or sandy loam, pH 6 to 7.5
Crop duration: 2-4 years
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Sowing rate: 7-9kg/ha (direct), 250-400g/ha (indirect, in plugs).
Planting: sowing in plugs in greenhouse in early spring till mid-summer is most common method; sow 6-8 weeks before transplanting to field. Direct sowing is not as common because weed control is more difficult; sow in early spring or late fall (to come up next spring).
Field spacing: 50-75cm between rows x 18-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry herb 5000kg/ha, fresh herb 10-25t/ha (years 1-3).
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: erisyphe powdery mildew, septoria blight, puccinia rust.
Buyers want: dry carefully to conserve oil in dried herb.
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Sowing rate: 3-5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in flats or plugs 11-14 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spidermite, thrip
Diseases: mildew.
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| |
Basil
(Ocimum basilicum, and others ) |
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Market
|
Products: (leaf, herb); (herb); (oil);
Market size: 10,000 hectares (world), 1,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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|
Culture |
Seed density: 500-1000 (O. gratissimum 2600, O. kilamandscharicum 2800, O. sanctum 1500-2500) seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: rich, well-drained
Crop duration: 1 year (O. basilicum), 1-3 years (others)
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Sowing rate: 20kg/ha (direct); 3-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in spring when nighttime temperatures exceed 10°C; or sow in flats or plugs 8 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 15-25cm within rows.
Yield: fresh herb 15,000kg/ha, dry herb 1,500-2,000kg/ha, oil 30kg/ha (year 1)
Pests: aphids, thrips
Diseases: O. basilicum varieties are highly susceptible to fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum) disease. Disease persists in soil for several years. Commercial field plantings should be sown with fusarium-tolerant Nufar F1. Hydroponic operations may choose fusarium-free varieties if equipment and facilities are free of fusarium (spreads by contaminated seeds and equipment). Other basil species (e.g. O. americanum and O. gratissimum) are fusarium-tolerant.
Buyers want: not less than 0.4% essential oil in dried product.
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Sowing rate: 3-4g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in final pots, or in plugs and later transplant to final pots. Nighttime temperature must not go below 10°C.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, thrips, aphids
Diseases: fusarium (see above).
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Bay Laurel
(Laurus nobilis ) |
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Market
|
Products: (leaf); (leaf);
Market size: 2,000 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 1 seeds/gram
Exposure: sheltered position in full or half sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, moist
Crop duration: 20-50 years
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Sowing rate: 30-60kg/ha
Planting: sow stratified seeds in beds or flats.
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: leaves dried flat for visual appearance.
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Sowing rate: 5kg/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or flats in March or April.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks (after stratification).
Plugs to saleable plants: 10 weeks to a year.
Pests: whitefly, scale, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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Borage
(Borago officinalis ) |
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Market
|
Products: (seed, herb, flower, root); (herb, flower, root), (seed);
Market size: 5,000 hectares (world); 2,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, acreage up
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Culture |
Seed density: 50 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: best in well-drained, fertile, moist soil, but tolerates most soils, pH 5-8
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 5-17 kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in late spring in rows 45-90cm apart, 30-45cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 300kg/ha; fresh flower 1,000-5,000kg/ha; seed 90-450kg/ha.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: 24% gamma lineolenic acid content in seed oil.
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Sowing rate: 50-80g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots or plugs.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
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Burdock
(Arctium lappa) |
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Market
|
Products: (root, leaf); (root);
Market size: 3,000 hectares (world), 170 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 60-110 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or part sun
Soil: deep, loose, humus-rich, pH 6-8
Crop duration: 1-2 years
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Sowing rate: 4 kg/ha (direct), 1.5kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring. Or, sow in beds or plugs and transplant to field in spring. For use as fresh vegetable, dig first year roots when young and tender at 3-5 months. For dry root production, dig in fall of second year.
Field spacing: 45-90cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry root 2,000kg/ha (years 2 or 3).
Pests: few problems, grasshopper
Diseases: few problems.
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Sowing rate: 20g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs 9-10 weeks before sale.
Seeds to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Calendula
(C. officinalis) |
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Market
|
Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 880 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 150 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained; can tolerate poor soil with low nitrogen.
Crop duration: 1 year
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|
Sowing rate: 3-9kg/ha (direct), 1kg/ha (indirect in plugs).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring or autumn; or sow in plugs 4-6 weeks before field planting. Seeds need light to germinate; cover seeds lightly or press in soil only.
Field spacing: 20-70cm between rows x 10-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 1-2,000kg/ha, fresh flower 6-9,000kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: blister-beetle, cabbage-looper, caterpillar, leafhopper
Diseases: leaf spot, aster-yellows.
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|
|
Sowing rate: 15g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or direct in pots 10-12 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 4-6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, aphid, thrip, mealybug
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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| |
Caraway
(Carum carvi) |
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Market
|
Products: (seed); (seed)
Market size: 19,000 hectares (world), 2,500 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 350-400 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, pH 6-7.8.
Crop duration: 1-2 years (depending on variety)
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Sowing rate: 8-11 kg/ha.
Planting: sow standard biennial type direct in field late June or early July; harvest following year in August. Sow annual type in May (suited for warmer regions with 5-6 frost-free months). Sometimes sown with annual cover crops such as coriander, dill, mustard the first year.
Field spacing: 10-50cm between rows x 4-15cm within rows.
Yield: seed 600-3,000kg/ha, oil 4.5-7kg/ha (year 1 or 2, depending on variety).
Pests: leafhopper
Diseases: aster yellows.
Buyers want: seed minimum 3% oil, maximum 12% moisture.
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| |
Catnip
(Nepeta cataria ) |
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Market
|
Products: (herb, leaf);
Market size: 2,400 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 1500-1600 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or partial sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, sandy, pH 6.5
Crop duration: 2-5 years
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|
|
Sowing rate: 12 kg/ha (direct), 1kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring or late fall. Or, sow in plugs 8-10 weeks before field planting. Seed needs light to germinate; sow shallow 2-4mm deep.
Field spacing: 45-90cm between rows x 30-40cm within rows.
Harvest: leaf, herb (years 2-5).
Yield: dry herb 3-6t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
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|
|
Sowing rate: 3g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or seedflats 12-15 weeks before sale. Sow 2-4mm deep.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8-10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3-5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
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| |
Chamomile
(Matricaria recutita, Chamaemelum nobile ) |
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Market
|
Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 40,000 hectares (world), 4,800 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 10,000-18,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained, moist to dry
Crop duration: 1 year (M. recutita), 2-3 years (C. nobile)
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|
|
Sowing rate: 3-4 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect)
Planting: german (M. recutita) is sown direct in field in spring or fall. Fall sowings germinate following spring. Roman (C. nobile) is sown direct or indirect in plugs which are later planted in field. Surface sow only (needs light to germinate). Hand harvesting flowers problematic in areas where labour cost is high; mechanical harvesting still unproven.
Field spacing: 10-50cm between rows x 10-25cm within rows, or broadcast sown.
Yield: dry flower 350-500kg/ha (M. recutita; year 1), 600-1000 kg/ha (C. nobile; years 1-3).
Pests: cnephasia moth
Diseases: aster yellows.
Buyers want: 0.4% or more volatile oil.
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|
|
Sowing rate: 1g/1000plants.
Planting: german (M. recutita) not normally sold in pots; roman (C. nobile) and its varieties are sold in pots or plugs. Seeds need light to germinate; surface sow only.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4-6 weeks.
Pests: aphid, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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|
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|
| |
Chives
(Allium schoenoprasum, A. tuberosum ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (leaf, flower); (leaf, flower);
Market size: 24,000 hectares (world), 3,200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 750 (A. schoenoprasum), 200-300 (A. tuberosum) seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, humus-rich
Crop duration: 3-5 years
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 2-3 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring, or sow indirect in plugs 12-16 weeks before field planting. Field must be free of quackgrass otherwise harvests will be contaminated.
Field spacing: 30cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: fresh leaf 10-20t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: aphid
Diseases: puccinia rust, downy mildew.
Buyers want: good green colour (dry leaf).
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|
|
Sowing rate: 5-20g/1000plants (A. schoenoprasum), 50g/1000plants (A. tuberosum)
Planting: sow 10-15 seeds per plug or pot, or sow same amount direct in pots.
Seeds to saleable plants: 24-30 weeks.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12-16 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 11 weeks.
Pests: aphid, thrip
Diseases: few problems.
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| |
Comfrey
(Symphytum officinale, S. x uplandicum) |
|
Market
|
Products: (leaf, root); (root, herb);
Market size: 1,700 hectares (world), 240 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 90-100 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or part sun
Soil: moist, wet or dry
Crop duration: 2-5 years
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 600-900g/ha (indirect).
Planting: although seed can be sown direct, the high cost of seed dictates indirect sowing in plugs or seedbed and transplanting to field. Root cuttings (12,000/ha) of named cultivars (e.g. Bocking No. 14) recommended over seed.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 90cm within rows.
Yield: dry leaf 12t/ha (years 2-5), dry root 1,800kg/ha (year 3, 4 or 5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: comfrey rust.
Buyers want: low pyrrolizidine alkaloid content, particularly echimidine; leaf should be cut early to avoid alkaloid buildup.
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|
|
Sowing rate: 50-70g/1000plants.
Planting: sow S. officinale in plugs or seedflats 12-14 weeks before sale. S. x uplandicum and ornamental varieties are propagated by division or root cutting.
Seeds to saleable plants: 12 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, aphid
Diseases: comfrey rust.
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| |
Coriander, Cilantro
(Coriandrum sativum) |
|
Market
|
Products: (seed); (herb); (seed, herb);
Market size: 600,000 hectares (world), 5,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 110-150 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun (seed), full or half sun (fresh herb)
Soil: deep, fertile, light or heavy, well-drained, pH 6.5-7.5
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 25 kg/ha (seed), 80 kg/ha (fresh herb).
Planting: for seed and seed oil production, sow direct in spring. For fresh herb (cilantro) and herb oil production sow early spring and fall; will bolt in hot weather.
Field spacing: 50-60cm between rows x 11-13cm between plants (seed), 20-25cm between rows x 8-10cm (fresh herb).
Yield: seed 900-1,500kg/ha, fresh herb 10-12t/ha, oil 1-9kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: thrip
Diseases: asters yellow, erysiphe powdery mildew, puccinia rust, pseudamonas, and sclerotina.
Buyers want: less than 12% moisture.
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Sowing rate: 200g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots; do not transplant – root disturbance causes plants to bolt early.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: aphid, thrip, mite, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Dandelion
(Taraxacum officinale) |
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Market
|
Products: (root, herb); (leaf)
Market size: 7,000 hectares (world); 500 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 1200-1900 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: most soils
Crop duration: 2 years (root), 1-4 years (fresh leaf)
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Sowing rate: 1-3kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring or late summer. Fresh leaf gathered as vegetable spring, summer and fall. Herb for drying harvested spring or summer. Roots dug late fall.
Field spacing: 45cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: dry root 1100-1700kg/ha (year 2).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: water-soluble extractive not less than 30%.
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Dill
(Anethum graveolens, A. sowa ) |
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Market
|
Products: (seed, herb); (leaf); (leaf, seed);
Market size: 37,000 hectares (world), 4,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices same, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 400-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, moderately rich, loose soil, pH 5.5-6.5
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 9-12 kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in spring.
Field spacing: 25-50cm between rows; thin to 10cm within rows for fresh herb production or 2-3cm within rows for seed production.
Yield: seed 600-900kg/ha, fresh herb 2500-5000kg/ha, dried herb 1000kg/ha, oil 50-110kg/ha.
Pests: aphid, tarnished plant bug
Diseases: powdery mildew, leafspot, aster yellows.
Buyers want: good green colour (dried leaf).
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Sowing rate: 15-40g/1000pots.
Planting: do not transplant; sow direct in pots, 8-20 seeds per pot.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: aphid
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Echinacea
(Echinacea purpurea, E. angustifolia, E. pallida ) |
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Market
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Products: (root, herb, flower, seed); (herb);
Market size: 16,000 hectares (world), 4,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices down, acreage up; market for E. purpurea herb is weak.
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Culture |
Seed density: 160-500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained, pH 6-7.5
Crop duration: 3-4 years
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Sowing rate: 14-18 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: E. purpurea seeds do not require pretreatment. Can be started in plugs and transplanted to the field, which is the preferred method, or can be sown direct in the field. Sow E. purpurea 100-120 days before field planting; sow E. angustifolia and E. pallida 150 days before planting. E. angustifolia and E. pallida germination benefits from pretreatment; stratify at 5°C for 4-12 weeks with light. Pretreatment with Ethrel (1 millimolar for 2 weeks), or with bleach (1% for 10 min.) improves E. angustifolia germination.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 20-45cm within rows.
Yield: E. purpurea herb 6,500-11,000kg/ha (years 2-4); E. purpurea root 1000kg/ha (year 4); E. angustifolia root 1100kg/ha (year 4); no data for E. pallida root.
Pests: leafhopper
Diseases: aster yellows (spread by leafhoppers), sclerotinia stem and root rot, botrytis.
Buyers want: certificate of botanical identity required for E. angustifolia; echinacoside 1.4% (roots).
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Sowing rate: 10g/1000plants.
Planting: sow 14 weeks (E. purpurea) to 22 weeks (E. angustifolia, E. pallida) before sale. Stratify or pretreat E. angustifolia and E. pallida seed before sowing (see above).
Seeds to finished plugs: 8-12 weeks (after pretreatment).
Plugs to saleable plants: 6-10 weeks.
Pests: few problems, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Elecampane
(Inula helenium ) |
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Market
|
Products: (root); (root);
Market size: 800 hectares (world), 25 ha (North America).
Prospects: prices same, volume same
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Culture |
Seed density: 600-800 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: moist, deep, well-drained
Crop duration: 2 years.
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Sowing rate: 400-600g/ha (direct); 5g/1000plants (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing not recommended. Start in plugs 8 weeks before spring or late summer field planting.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 45cm within rows.
Yield: 2500kg/ha (year 2).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: erysiphe powdery mildew (late summer), ramularia leafspot, puccinia rust.
Buyers want: not less than 1.8% volatile oil, not more than 6-8% ash, not less than 27% water-soluble extractive, not more than 2% foreign matter.
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Sowing rate: 5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs, seedflats or seed beds. Germination in 4-7 days.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 2-6 weeks.
Pests: spider mite, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Alfalfa
(Medicago sativa ) |
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Market
|
Products: (seeds, leaf, herb); (herb, sprouts)
Market size: (excluding acreage planted for fodder): 12,000 hectares (world); 5,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices and acreage up
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Culture |
Seed density: 350 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained; pH 6.0-7.5
Crop duration: 1-4 years
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(herb) |
Sowing rate: 9-13kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring, broadcast or sow in rows, 15-30cm apart. Two or more cuts at bud stage possible; last cut 6 weeks before killing frost. Heavy potash and phosphorus feeder.
Yield: dry herb 8-10,000kg/ha (years 1-4).
Pests: weevil, leafminer, leafhopper, snout beetle
Diseases: verticillium wilt, leafspot, phytophthora root rot.
Buyers want: organic product.
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(sprouts) |
Planting: soak seeds overnight; drain, keep moist. Ready in 3-5 days.
Yield: 4kg(sprouts)/kg(seeds).
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Arnica
(A. montana, A. chamissonis) |
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Market
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Products: (flower, root); (flower);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 160 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume down
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Culture |
Seed density: 700-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, humus-rich, pH 7 (A. chamissonis), pH 4.5-6 (A. montana)
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 1-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing not recommended. Sow in seedflats or plugs. Sow A. montana 16-20 weeks before transplanting to field; sow A. chamissonis 12 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 15-60cm between rows x 15-20cm within rows.
Harvest: flower (years 2-5), root (year 3 or 4).
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: chlorosis (yellow leaves) in A. montana caused by alkaline soil.
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Sowing rate: 8-10g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in seedflats or plugs 20 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8 weeks.
Pests: few problems, whitefly occasionally
Diseases: few problems.
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Lemon Balm
(Melissa officinalis) |
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Market
|
Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 75 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 2000 seeds/gram
Exposure: sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained clay or sandy loam, pH 6 to 7.5
Crop duration: 2-4 years
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Sowing rate: 7-9kg/ha (direct), 250-400g/ha (indirect, in plugs).
Planting: sowing in plugs in greenhouse in early spring till mid-summer is most common method; sow 6-8 weeks before transplanting to field. Direct sowing is not as common because weed control is more difficult; sow in early spring or late fall (to come up next spring).
Field spacing: 50-75cm between rows x 18-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry herb 5000kg/ha, fresh herb 10-25t/ha (years 1-3).
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: erisyphe powdery mildew, septoria blight, puccinia rust.
Buyers want: dry carefully to conserve oil in dried herb.
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Sowing rate: 3-5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in flats or plugs 11-14 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spidermite, thrip
Diseases: mildew.
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Basil
(Ocimum basilicum, and others ) |
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Market
|
Products: (leaf, herb); (herb); (oil);
Market size: 10,000 hectares (world), 1,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 500-1000 (O. gratissimum 2600, O. kilamandscharicum 2800, O. sanctum 1500-2500) seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: rich, well-drained
Crop duration: 1 year (O. basilicum), 1-3 years (others)
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Sowing rate: 20kg/ha (direct); 3-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in spring when nighttime temperatures exceed 10°C; or sow in flats or plugs 8 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 15-25cm within rows.
Yield: fresh herb 15,000kg/ha, dry herb 1,500-2,000kg/ha, oil 30kg/ha (year 1)
Pests: aphids, thrips
Diseases: O. basilicum varieties are highly susceptible to fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum) disease. Disease persists in soil for several years. Commercial field plantings should be sown with fusarium-tolerant Nufar F1. Hydroponic operations may choose fusarium-free varieties if equipment and facilities are free of fusarium (spreads by contaminated seeds and equipment). Other basil species (e.g. O. americanum and O. gratissimum) are fusarium-tolerant.
Buyers want: not less than 0.4% essential oil in dried product.
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Sowing rate: 3-4g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in final pots, or in plugs and later transplant to final pots. Nighttime temperature must not go below 10°C.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, thrips, aphids
Diseases: fusarium (see above).
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Bay Laurel
(Laurus nobilis ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (leaf);
Market size: 2,000 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 1 seeds/gram
Exposure: sheltered position in full or half sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, moist
Crop duration: 20-50 years
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Sowing rate: 30-60kg/ha
Planting: sow stratified seeds in beds or flats.
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: leaves dried flat for visual appearance.
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Sowing rate: 5kg/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or flats in March or April.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks (after stratification).
Plugs to saleable plants: 10 weeks to a year.
Pests: whitefly, scale, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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Borage
(Borago officinalis ) |
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Market
|
Products: (seed, herb, flower, root); (herb, flower, root), (seed);
Market size: 5,000 hectares (world); 2,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, acreage up
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Culture |
Seed density: 50 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: best in well-drained, fertile, moist soil, but tolerates most soils, pH 5-8
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 5-17 kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in late spring in rows 45-90cm apart, 30-45cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 300kg/ha; fresh flower 1,000-5,000kg/ha; seed 90-450kg/ha.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: 24% gamma lineolenic acid content in seed oil.
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Sowing rate: 50-80g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots or plugs.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
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Burdock
(Arctium lappa) |
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Market
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Products: (root, leaf); (root);
Market size: 3,000 hectares (world), 170 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 60-110 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or part sun
Soil: deep, loose, humus-rich, pH 6-8
Crop duration: 1-2 years
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Sowing rate: 4 kg/ha (direct), 1.5kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring. Or, sow in beds or plugs and transplant to field in spring. For use as fresh vegetable, dig first year roots when young and tender at 3-5 months. For dry root production, dig in fall of second year.
Field spacing: 45-90cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry root 2,000kg/ha (years 2 or 3).
Pests: few problems, grasshopper
Diseases: few problems.
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Sowing rate: 20g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs 9-10 weeks before sale.
Seeds to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Calendula
(C. officinalis) |
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Market
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Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 880 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 150 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained; can tolerate poor soil with low nitrogen.
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 3-9kg/ha (direct), 1kg/ha (indirect in plugs).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring or autumn; or sow in plugs 4-6 weeks before field planting. Seeds need light to germinate; cover seeds lightly or press in soil only.
Field spacing: 20-70cm between rows x 10-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 1-2,000kg/ha, fresh flower 6-9,000kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: blister-beetle, cabbage-looper, caterpillar, leafhopper
Diseases: leaf spot, aster-yellows.
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Sowing rate: 15g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or direct in pots 10-12 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 4-6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, aphid, thrip, mealybug
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Caraway
(Carum carvi) |
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Market
|
Products: (seed); (seed)
Market size: 19,000 hectares (world), 2,500 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 350-400 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, pH 6-7.8.
Crop duration: 1-2 years (depending on variety)
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Sowing rate: 8-11 kg/ha.
Planting: sow standard biennial type direct in field late June or early July; harvest following year in August. Sow annual type in May (suited for warmer regions with 5-6 frost-free months). Sometimes sown with annual cover crops such as coriander, dill, mustard the first year.
Field spacing: 10-50cm between rows x 4-15cm within rows.
Yield: seed 600-3,000kg/ha, oil 4.5-7kg/ha (year 1 or 2, depending on variety).
Pests: leafhopper
Diseases: aster yellows.
Buyers want: seed minimum 3% oil, maximum 12% moisture.
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Catnip
(Nepeta cataria ) |
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Market
|
Products: (herb, leaf);
Market size: 2,400 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 1500-1600 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or partial sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, sandy, pH 6.5
Crop duration: 2-5 years
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Sowing rate: 12 kg/ha (direct), 1kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring or late fall. Or, sow in plugs 8-10 weeks before field planting. Seed needs light to germinate; sow shallow 2-4mm deep.
Field spacing: 45-90cm between rows x 30-40cm within rows.
Harvest: leaf, herb (years 2-5).
Yield: dry herb 3-6t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
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Sowing rate: 3g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or seedflats 12-15 weeks before sale. Sow 2-4mm deep.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8-10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3-5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
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Chamomile
(Matricaria recutita, Chamaemelum nobile ) |
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Market
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Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 40,000 hectares (world), 4,800 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 10,000-18,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained, moist to dry
Crop duration: 1 year (M. recutita), 2-3 years (C. nobile)
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Sowing rate: 3-4 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect)
Planting: german (M. recutita) is sown direct in field in spring or fall. Fall sowings germinate following spring. Roman (C. nobile) is sown direct or indirect in plugs which are later planted in field. Surface sow only (needs light to germinate). Hand harvesting flowers problematic in areas where labour cost is high; mechanical harvesting still unproven.
Field spacing: 10-50cm between rows x 10-25cm within rows, or broadcast sown.
Yield: dry flower 350-500kg/ha (M. recutita; year 1), 600-1000 kg/ha (C. nobile; years 1-3).
Pests: cnephasia moth
Diseases: aster yellows.
Buyers want: 0.4% or more volatile oil.
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Sowing rate: 1g/1000plants.
Planting: german (M. recutita) not normally sold in pots; roman (C. nobile) and its varieties are sold in pots or plugs. Seeds need light to germinate; surface sow only.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4-6 weeks.
Pests: aphid, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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Chives
(Allium schoenoprasum, A. tuberosum ) |
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Market
|
Products: (leaf, flower); (leaf, flower);
Market size: 24,000 hectares (world), 3,200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 750 (A. schoenoprasum), 200-300 (A. tuberosum) seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, humus-rich
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 2-3 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring, or sow indirect in plugs 12-16 weeks before field planting. Field must be free of quackgrass otherwise harvests will be contaminated.
Field spacing: 30cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: fresh leaf 10-20t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: aphid
Diseases: puccinia rust, downy mildew.
Buyers want: good green colour (dry leaf).
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Sowing rate: 5-20g/1000plants (A. schoenoprasum), 50g/1000plants (A. tuberosum)
Planting: sow 10-15 seeds per plug or pot, or sow same amount direct in pots.
Seeds to saleable plants: 24-30 weeks.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12-16 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 11 weeks.
Pests: aphid, thrip
Diseases: few problems.
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Comfrey
(Symphytum officinale, S. x uplandicum) |
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Market
|
Products: (leaf, root); (root, herb);
Market size: 1,700 hectares (world), 240 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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|
Culture |
Seed density: 90-100 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or part sun
Soil: moist, wet or dry
Crop duration: 2-5 years
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|
Sowing rate: 600-900g/ha (indirect).
Planting: although seed can be sown direct, the high cost of seed dictates indirect sowing in plugs or seedbed and transplanting to field. Root cuttings (12,000/ha) of named cultivars (e.g. Bocking No. 14) recommended over seed.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 90cm within rows.
Yield: dry leaf 12t/ha (years 2-5), dry root 1,800kg/ha (year 3, 4 or 5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: comfrey rust.
Buyers want: low pyrrolizidine alkaloid content, particularly echimidine; leaf should be cut early to avoid alkaloid buildup.
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Sowing rate: 50-70g/1000plants.
Planting: sow S. officinale in plugs or seedflats 12-14 weeks before sale. S. x uplandicum and ornamental varieties are propagated by division or root cutting.
Seeds to saleable plants: 12 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, aphid
Diseases: comfrey rust.
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Coriander, Cilantro
(Coriandrum sativum) |
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Market
|
Products: (seed); (herb); (seed, herb);
Market size: 600,000 hectares (world), 5,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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|
Culture |
Seed density: 110-150 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun (seed), full or half sun (fresh herb)
Soil: deep, fertile, light or heavy, well-drained, pH 6.5-7.5
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 25 kg/ha (seed), 80 kg/ha (fresh herb).
Planting: for seed and seed oil production, sow direct in spring. For fresh herb (cilantro) and herb oil production sow early spring and fall; will bolt in hot weather.
Field spacing: 50-60cm between rows x 11-13cm between plants (seed), 20-25cm between rows x 8-10cm (fresh herb).
Yield: seed 900-1,500kg/ha, fresh herb 10-12t/ha, oil 1-9kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: thrip
Diseases: asters yellow, erysiphe powdery mildew, puccinia rust, pseudamonas, and sclerotina.
Buyers want: less than 12% moisture.
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|
|
Sowing rate: 200g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots; do not transplant – root disturbance causes plants to bolt early.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: aphid, thrip, mite, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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| |
Dandelion
(Taraxacum officinale) |
|
Market
|
Products: (root, herb); (leaf)
Market size: 7,000 hectares (world); 500 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 1200-1900 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: most soils
Crop duration: 2 years (root), 1-4 years (fresh leaf)
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|
|
Sowing rate: 1-3kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring or late summer. Fresh leaf gathered as vegetable spring, summer and fall. Herb for drying harvested spring or summer. Roots dug late fall.
Field spacing: 45cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: dry root 1100-1700kg/ha (year 2).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: water-soluble extractive not less than 30%.
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Dill
(Anethum graveolens, A. sowa ) |
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Market
|
Products: (seed, herb); (leaf); (leaf, seed);
Market size: 37,000 hectares (world), 4,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices same, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 400-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, moderately rich, loose soil, pH 5.5-6.5
Crop duration: 1 year
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|
|
Sowing rate: 9-12 kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in spring.
Field spacing: 25-50cm between rows; thin to 10cm within rows for fresh herb production or 2-3cm within rows for seed production.
Yield: seed 600-900kg/ha, fresh herb 2500-5000kg/ha, dried herb 1000kg/ha, oil 50-110kg/ha.
Pests: aphid, tarnished plant bug
Diseases: powdery mildew, leafspot, aster yellows.
Buyers want: good green colour (dried leaf).
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Sowing rate: 15-40g/1000pots.
Planting: do not transplant; sow direct in pots, 8-20 seeds per pot.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: aphid
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Echinacea
(Echinacea purpurea, E. angustifolia, E. pallida ) |
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Market
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Products: (root, herb, flower, seed); (herb);
Market size: 16,000 hectares (world), 4,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices down, acreage up; market for E. purpurea herb is weak.
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Culture |
Seed density: 160-500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained, pH 6-7.5
Crop duration: 3-4 years
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Sowing rate: 14-18 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: E. purpurea seeds do not require pretreatment. Can be started in plugs and transplanted to the field, which is the preferred method, or can be sown direct in the field. Sow E. purpurea 100-120 days before field planting; sow E. angustifolia and E. pallida 150 days before planting. E. angustifolia and E. pallida germination benefits from pretreatment; stratify at 5°C for 4-12 weeks with light. Pretreatment with Ethrel (1 millimolar for 2 weeks), or with bleach (1% for 10 min.) improves E. angustifolia germination.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 20-45cm within rows.
Yield: E. purpurea herb 6,500-11,000kg/ha (years 2-4); E. purpurea root 1000kg/ha (year 4); E. angustifolia root 1100kg/ha (year 4); no data for E. pallida root.
Pests: leafhopper
Diseases: aster yellows (spread by leafhoppers), sclerotinia stem and root rot, botrytis.
Buyers want: certificate of botanical identity required for E. angustifolia; echinacoside 1.4% (roots).
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Sowing rate: 10g/1000plants.
Planting: sow 14 weeks (E. purpurea) to 22 weeks (E. angustifolia, E. pallida) before sale. Stratify or pretreat E. angustifolia and E. pallida seed before sowing (see above).
Seeds to finished plugs: 8-12 weeks (after pretreatment).
Plugs to saleable plants: 6-10 weeks.
Pests: few problems, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Elecampane
(Inula helenium ) |
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Market
|
Products: (root); (root);
Market size: 800 hectares (world), 25 ha (North America).
Prospects: prices same, volume same
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Culture |
Seed density: 600-800 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: moist, deep, well-drained
Crop duration: 2 years.
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Sowing rate: 400-600g/ha (direct); 5g/1000plants (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing not recommended. Start in plugs 8 weeks before spring or late summer field planting.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 45cm within rows.
Yield: 2500kg/ha (year 2).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: erysiphe powdery mildew (late summer), ramularia leafspot, puccinia rust.
Buyers want: not less than 1.8% volatile oil, not more than 6-8% ash, not less than 27% water-soluble extractive, not more than 2% foreign matter.
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Sowing rate: 5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs, seedflats or seed beds. Germination in 4-7 days.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 2-6 weeks.
Pests: spider mite, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Fennel
(Foeniculum vulgare) |
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Market
|
Products: (seed); (leaf, bulb); (herb);
Market size: 70,000 hectares (world), 7,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 200-300 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, deep, moderately fertile, pH 7-8.
Crop duration: 2-3 years (florence fennel, 1 year)
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Sowing rate: 4-6kg/ha (direct), 30g/1000plants (indirect).
Planting: sow sweet fennel direct; bronze direct or indirect; florence indirect.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: seed 1000-1600kg/ha (years 2-3), fresh herb 8-10t/ha (year 1-3), dried herb 1.5-2.5t/ha (year 1-3), seed oil 40-75kg/ha.
Pests: aphid, lygus tarnished plant bug
Diseases: sclerotinia stemrot, rhizoctonia damping-off, erwinia soft rot.
Buyers want: not less than 2-4% volatile oil.
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Sowing rate: 30g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots or in plugs. Does not transplant well; best to sow direct.
Seeds to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3 weeks.
Pests: aphid
Diseases: damping-off.
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| |
Alfalfa
(Medicago sativa ) |
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Market
|
Products: (seeds, leaf, herb); (herb, sprouts)
Market size: (excluding acreage planted for fodder): 12,000 hectares (world); 5,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices and acreage up
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Culture |
Seed density: 350 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained; pH 6.0-7.5
Crop duration: 1-4 years
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(herb) |
Sowing rate: 9-13kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring, broadcast or sow in rows, 15-30cm apart. Two or more cuts at bud stage possible; last cut 6 weeks before killing frost. Heavy potash and phosphorus feeder.
Yield: dry herb 8-10,000kg/ha (years 1-4).
Pests: weevil, leafminer, leafhopper, snout beetle
Diseases: verticillium wilt, leafspot, phytophthora root rot.
Buyers want: organic product.
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(sprouts) |
Planting: soak seeds overnight; drain, keep moist. Ready in 3-5 days.
Yield: 4kg(sprouts)/kg(seeds).
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Arnica
(A. montana, A. chamissonis) |
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Market
|
Products: (flower, root); (flower);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 160 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume down
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Culture |
Seed density: 700-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, humus-rich, pH 7 (A. chamissonis), pH 4.5-6 (A. montana)
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 1-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing not recommended. Sow in seedflats or plugs. Sow A. montana 16-20 weeks before transplanting to field; sow A. chamissonis 12 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 15-60cm between rows x 15-20cm within rows.
Harvest: flower (years 2-5), root (year 3 or 4).
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: chlorosis (yellow leaves) in A. montana caused by alkaline soil.
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Sowing rate: 8-10g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in seedflats or plugs 20 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8 weeks.
Pests: few problems, whitefly occasionally
Diseases: few problems.
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| |
Lemon Balm
(Melissa officinalis) |
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Market
|
Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 75 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 2000 seeds/gram
Exposure: sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained clay or sandy loam, pH 6 to 7.5
Crop duration: 2-4 years
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Sowing rate: 7-9kg/ha (direct), 250-400g/ha (indirect, in plugs).
Planting: sowing in plugs in greenhouse in early spring till mid-summer is most common method; sow 6-8 weeks before transplanting to field. Direct sowing is not as common because weed control is more difficult; sow in early spring or late fall (to come up next spring).
Field spacing: 50-75cm between rows x 18-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry herb 5000kg/ha, fresh herb 10-25t/ha (years 1-3).
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: erisyphe powdery mildew, septoria blight, puccinia rust.
Buyers want: dry carefully to conserve oil in dried herb.
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Sowing rate: 3-5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in flats or plugs 11-14 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spidermite, thrip
Diseases: mildew.
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| |
Basil
(Ocimum basilicum, and others ) |
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Market
|
Products: (leaf, herb); (herb); (oil);
Market size: 10,000 hectares (world), 1,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 500-1000 (O. gratissimum 2600, O. kilamandscharicum 2800, O. sanctum 1500-2500) seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: rich, well-drained
Crop duration: 1 year (O. basilicum), 1-3 years (others)
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Sowing rate: 20kg/ha (direct); 3-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in spring when nighttime temperatures exceed 10°C; or sow in flats or plugs 8 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 15-25cm within rows.
Yield: fresh herb 15,000kg/ha, dry herb 1,500-2,000kg/ha, oil 30kg/ha (year 1)
Pests: aphids, thrips
Diseases: O. basilicum varieties are highly susceptible to fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum) disease. Disease persists in soil for several years. Commercial field plantings should be sown with fusarium-tolerant Nufar F1. Hydroponic operations may choose fusarium-free varieties if equipment and facilities are free of fusarium (spreads by contaminated seeds and equipment). Other basil species (e.g. O. americanum and O. gratissimum) are fusarium-tolerant.
Buyers want: not less than 0.4% essential oil in dried product.
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Sowing rate: 3-4g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in final pots, or in plugs and later transplant to final pots. Nighttime temperature must not go below 10°C.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, thrips, aphids
Diseases: fusarium (see above).
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Bay Laurel
(Laurus nobilis ) |
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Market
|
Products: (leaf); (leaf);
Market size: 2,000 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 1 seeds/gram
Exposure: sheltered position in full or half sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, moist
Crop duration: 20-50 years
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Sowing rate: 30-60kg/ha
Planting: sow stratified seeds in beds or flats.
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: leaves dried flat for visual appearance.
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Sowing rate: 5kg/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or flats in March or April.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks (after stratification).
Plugs to saleable plants: 10 weeks to a year.
Pests: whitefly, scale, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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Borage
(Borago officinalis ) |
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Market
|
Products: (seed, herb, flower, root); (herb, flower, root), (seed);
Market size: 5,000 hectares (world); 2,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, acreage up
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Culture |
Seed density: 50 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: best in well-drained, fertile, moist soil, but tolerates most soils, pH 5-8
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 5-17 kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in late spring in rows 45-90cm apart, 30-45cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 300kg/ha; fresh flower 1,000-5,000kg/ha; seed 90-450kg/ha.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: 24% gamma lineolenic acid content in seed oil.
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Sowing rate: 50-80g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots or plugs.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
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Burdock
(Arctium lappa) |
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Market
|
Products: (root, leaf); (root);
Market size: 3,000 hectares (world), 170 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 60-110 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or part sun
Soil: deep, loose, humus-rich, pH 6-8
Crop duration: 1-2 years
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Sowing rate: 4 kg/ha (direct), 1.5kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring. Or, sow in beds or plugs and transplant to field in spring. For use as fresh vegetable, dig first year roots when young and tender at 3-5 months. For dry root production, dig in fall of second year.
Field spacing: 45-90cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry root 2,000kg/ha (years 2 or 3).
Pests: few problems, grasshopper
Diseases: few problems.
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Sowing rate: 20g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs 9-10 weeks before sale.
Seeds to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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| |
Calendula
(C. officinalis) |
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Market
|
Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 880 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 150 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained; can tolerate poor soil with low nitrogen.
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 3-9kg/ha (direct), 1kg/ha (indirect in plugs).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring or autumn; or sow in plugs 4-6 weeks before field planting. Seeds need light to germinate; cover seeds lightly or press in soil only.
Field spacing: 20-70cm between rows x 10-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 1-2,000kg/ha, fresh flower 6-9,000kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: blister-beetle, cabbage-looper, caterpillar, leafhopper
Diseases: leaf spot, aster-yellows.
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Sowing rate: 15g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or direct in pots 10-12 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 4-6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, aphid, thrip, mealybug
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Caraway
(Carum carvi) |
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Market
|
Products: (seed); (seed)
Market size: 19,000 hectares (world), 2,500 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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|
Culture |
Seed density: 350-400 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, pH 6-7.8.
Crop duration: 1-2 years (depending on variety)
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Sowing rate: 8-11 kg/ha.
Planting: sow standard biennial type direct in field late June or early July; harvest following year in August. Sow annual type in May (suited for warmer regions with 5-6 frost-free months). Sometimes sown with annual cover crops such as coriander, dill, mustard the first year.
Field spacing: 10-50cm between rows x 4-15cm within rows.
Yield: seed 600-3,000kg/ha, oil 4.5-7kg/ha (year 1 or 2, depending on variety).
Pests: leafhopper
Diseases: aster yellows.
Buyers want: seed minimum 3% oil, maximum 12% moisture.
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Catnip
(Nepeta cataria ) |
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Market
|
Products: (herb, leaf);
Market size: 2,400 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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|
Culture |
Seed density: 1500-1600 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or partial sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, sandy, pH 6.5
Crop duration: 2-5 years
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Sowing rate: 12 kg/ha (direct), 1kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring or late fall. Or, sow in plugs 8-10 weeks before field planting. Seed needs light to germinate; sow shallow 2-4mm deep.
Field spacing: 45-90cm between rows x 30-40cm within rows.
Harvest: leaf, herb (years 2-5).
Yield: dry herb 3-6t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
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|
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Sowing rate: 3g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or seedflats 12-15 weeks before sale. Sow 2-4mm deep.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8-10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3-5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
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Chamomile
(Matricaria recutita, Chamaemelum nobile ) |
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Market
|
Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 40,000 hectares (world), 4,800 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 10,000-18,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained, moist to dry
Crop duration: 1 year (M. recutita), 2-3 years (C. nobile)
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Sowing rate: 3-4 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect)
Planting: german (M. recutita) is sown direct in field in spring or fall. Fall sowings germinate following spring. Roman (C. nobile) is sown direct or indirect in plugs which are later planted in field. Surface sow only (needs light to germinate). Hand harvesting flowers problematic in areas where labour cost is high; mechanical harvesting still unproven.
Field spacing: 10-50cm between rows x 10-25cm within rows, or broadcast sown.
Yield: dry flower 350-500kg/ha (M. recutita; year 1), 600-1000 kg/ha (C. nobile; years 1-3).
Pests: cnephasia moth
Diseases: aster yellows.
Buyers want: 0.4% or more volatile oil.
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Sowing rate: 1g/1000plants.
Planting: german (M. recutita) not normally sold in pots; roman (C. nobile) and its varieties are sold in pots or plugs. Seeds need light to germinate; surface sow only.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4-6 weeks.
Pests: aphid, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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Chives
(Allium schoenoprasum, A. tuberosum ) |
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Market
|
Products: (leaf, flower); (leaf, flower);
Market size: 24,000 hectares (world), 3,200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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|
Culture |
Seed density: 750 (A. schoenoprasum), 200-300 (A. tuberosum) seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, humus-rich
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 2-3 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring, or sow indirect in plugs 12-16 weeks before field planting. Field must be free of quackgrass otherwise harvests will be contaminated.
Field spacing: 30cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: fresh leaf 10-20t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: aphid
Diseases: puccinia rust, downy mildew.
Buyers want: good green colour (dry leaf).
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Sowing rate: 5-20g/1000plants (A. schoenoprasum), 50g/1000plants (A. tuberosum)
Planting: sow 10-15 seeds per plug or pot, or sow same amount direct in pots.
Seeds to saleable plants: 24-30 weeks.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12-16 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 11 weeks.
Pests: aphid, thrip
Diseases: few problems.
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Comfrey
(Symphytum officinale, S. x uplandicum) |
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Market
|
Products: (leaf, root); (root, herb);
Market size: 1,700 hectares (world), 240 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 90-100 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or part sun
Soil: moist, wet or dry
Crop duration: 2-5 years
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|
|
Sowing rate: 600-900g/ha (indirect).
Planting: although seed can be sown direct, the high cost of seed dictates indirect sowing in plugs or seedbed and transplanting to field. Root cuttings (12,000/ha) of named cultivars (e.g. Bocking No. 14) recommended over seed.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 90cm within rows.
Yield: dry leaf 12t/ha (years 2-5), dry root 1,800kg/ha (year 3, 4 or 5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: comfrey rust.
Buyers want: low pyrrolizidine alkaloid content, particularly echimidine; leaf should be cut early to avoid alkaloid buildup.
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|
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Sowing rate: 50-70g/1000plants.
Planting: sow S. officinale in plugs or seedflats 12-14 weeks before sale. S. x uplandicum and ornamental varieties are propagated by division or root cutting.
Seeds to saleable plants: 12 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, aphid
Diseases: comfrey rust.
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Coriander, Cilantro
(Coriandrum sativum) |
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Market
|
Products: (seed); (herb); (seed, herb);
Market size: 600,000 hectares (world), 5,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 110-150 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun (seed), full or half sun (fresh herb)
Soil: deep, fertile, light or heavy, well-drained, pH 6.5-7.5
Crop duration: 1 year
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|
|
Sowing rate: 25 kg/ha (seed), 80 kg/ha (fresh herb).
Planting: for seed and seed oil production, sow direct in spring. For fresh herb (cilantro) and herb oil production sow early spring and fall; will bolt in hot weather.
Field spacing: 50-60cm between rows x 11-13cm between plants (seed), 20-25cm between rows x 8-10cm (fresh herb).
Yield: seed 900-1,500kg/ha, fresh herb 10-12t/ha, oil 1-9kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: thrip
Diseases: asters yellow, erysiphe powdery mildew, puccinia rust, pseudamonas, and sclerotina.
Buyers want: less than 12% moisture.
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|
|
Sowing rate: 200g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots; do not transplant – root disturbance causes plants to bolt early.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: aphid, thrip, mite, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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| |
Dandelion
(Taraxacum officinale) |
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Market
|
Products: (root, herb); (leaf)
Market size: 7,000 hectares (world); 500 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 1200-1900 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: most soils
Crop duration: 2 years (root), 1-4 years (fresh leaf)
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|
|
Sowing rate: 1-3kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring or late summer. Fresh leaf gathered as vegetable spring, summer and fall. Herb for drying harvested spring or summer. Roots dug late fall.
Field spacing: 45cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: dry root 1100-1700kg/ha (year 2).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: water-soluble extractive not less than 30%.
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Dill
(Anethum graveolens, A. sowa ) |
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Market
|
Products: (seed, herb); (leaf); (leaf, seed);
Market size: 37,000 hectares (world), 4,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices same, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 400-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, moderately rich, loose soil, pH 5.5-6.5
Crop duration: 1 year
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 9-12 kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in spring.
Field spacing: 25-50cm between rows; thin to 10cm within rows for fresh herb production or 2-3cm within rows for seed production.
Yield: seed 600-900kg/ha, fresh herb 2500-5000kg/ha, dried herb 1000kg/ha, oil 50-110kg/ha.
Pests: aphid, tarnished plant bug
Diseases: powdery mildew, leafspot, aster yellows.
Buyers want: good green colour (dried leaf).
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|
|
Sowing rate: 15-40g/1000pots.
Planting: do not transplant; sow direct in pots, 8-20 seeds per pot.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: aphid
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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| |
Echinacea
(Echinacea purpurea, E. angustifolia, E. pallida ) |
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Market
|
Products: (root, herb, flower, seed); (herb);
Market size: 16,000 hectares (world), 4,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices down, acreage up; market for E. purpurea herb is weak.
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 160-500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained, pH 6-7.5
Crop duration: 3-4 years
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 14-18 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: E. purpurea seeds do not require pretreatment. Can be started in plugs and transplanted to the field, which is the preferred method, or can be sown direct in the field. Sow E. purpurea 100-120 days before field planting; sow E. angustifolia and E. pallida 150 days before planting. E. angustifolia and E. pallida germination benefits from pretreatment; stratify at 5°C for 4-12 weeks with light. Pretreatment with Ethrel (1 millimolar for 2 weeks), or with bleach (1% for 10 min.) improves E. angustifolia germination.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 20-45cm within rows.
Yield: E. purpurea herb 6,500-11,000kg/ha (years 2-4); E. purpurea root 1000kg/ha (year 4); E. angustifolia root 1100kg/ha (year 4); no data for E. pallida root.
Pests: leafhopper
Diseases: aster yellows (spread by leafhoppers), sclerotinia stem and root rot, botrytis.
Buyers want: certificate of botanical identity required for E. angustifolia; echinacoside 1.4% (roots).
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Sowing rate: 10g/1000plants.
Planting: sow 14 weeks (E. purpurea) to 22 weeks (E. angustifolia, E. pallida) before sale. Stratify or pretreat E. angustifolia and E. pallida seed before sowing (see above).
Seeds to finished plugs: 8-12 weeks (after pretreatment).
Plugs to saleable plants: 6-10 weeks.
Pests: few problems, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Elecampane
(Inula helenium ) |
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Market
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Products: (root); (root);
Market size: 800 hectares (world), 25 ha (North America).
Prospects: prices same, volume same
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Culture |
Seed density: 600-800 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: moist, deep, well-drained
Crop duration: 2 years.
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Sowing rate: 400-600g/ha (direct); 5g/1000plants (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing not recommended. Start in plugs 8 weeks before spring or late summer field planting.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 45cm within rows.
Yield: 2500kg/ha (year 2).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: erysiphe powdery mildew (late summer), ramularia leafspot, puccinia rust.
Buyers want: not less than 1.8% volatile oil, not more than 6-8% ash, not less than 27% water-soluble extractive, not more than 2% foreign matter.
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Sowing rate: 5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs, seedflats or seed beds. Germination in 4-7 days.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 2-6 weeks.
Pests: spider mite, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Fennel
(Foeniculum vulgare) |
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Market
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Products: (seed); (leaf, bulb); (herb);
Market size: 70,000 hectares (world), 7,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 200-300 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, deep, moderately fertile, pH 7-8.
Crop duration: 2-3 years (florence fennel, 1 year)
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Sowing rate: 4-6kg/ha (direct), 30g/1000plants (indirect).
Planting: sow sweet fennel direct; bronze direct or indirect; florence indirect.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: seed 1000-1600kg/ha (years 2-3), fresh herb 8-10t/ha (year 1-3), dried herb 1.5-2.5t/ha (year 1-3), seed oil 40-75kg/ha.
Pests: aphid, lygus tarnished plant bug
Diseases: sclerotinia stemrot, rhizoctonia damping-off, erwinia soft rot.
Buyers want: not less than 2-4% volatile oil.
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Sowing rate: 30g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots or in plugs. Does not transplant well; best to sow direct.
Seeds to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3 weeks.
Pests: aphid
Diseases: damping-off.
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Fenugreek
(Trigonella foenum-graecum) |
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Market
|
Products: (seeds, leaf, herb); (herb, sprouts); (seed)
Market size: 90,000 hectares (world), 7,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 100 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, warm soil
Crop duration: 1 year.
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Sowing rate: 25-35kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in spring. Broadcast or in close rows.
Field spacing: 20cm between rows x 10-20cm within rows.
Yield: seed 700-900kg/ha, dried forage 2-10t/ha.
Pests: no data
Diseases: no data.
Buyers want: swelling index not less than 6, foreign matter not more than 2-5%, ash not more than 5-6% (seed).
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Alfalfa
(Medicago sativa ) |
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Market
|
Products: (seeds, leaf, herb); (herb, sprouts)
Market size: (excluding acreage planted for fodder): 12,000 hectares (world); 5,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices and acreage up
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Culture |
Seed density: 350 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained; pH 6.0-7.5
Crop duration: 1-4 years
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(herb) |
Sowing rate: 9-13kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring, broadcast or sow in rows, 15-30cm apart. Two or more cuts at bud stage possible; last cut 6 weeks before killing frost. Heavy potash and phosphorus feeder.
Yield: dry herb 8-10,000kg/ha (years 1-4).
Pests: weevil, leafminer, leafhopper, snout beetle
Diseases: verticillium wilt, leafspot, phytophthora root rot.
Buyers want: organic product.
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(sprouts) |
Planting: soak seeds overnight; drain, keep moist. Ready in 3-5 days.
Yield: 4kg(sprouts)/kg(seeds).
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Arnica
(A. montana, A. chamissonis) |
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Market
|
Products: (flower, root); (flower);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 160 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume down
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Culture |
Seed density: 700-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, humus-rich, pH 7 (A. chamissonis), pH 4.5-6 (A. montana)
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 1-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing not recommended. Sow in seedflats or plugs. Sow A. montana 16-20 weeks before transplanting to field; sow A. chamissonis 12 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 15-60cm between rows x 15-20cm within rows.
Harvest: flower (years 2-5), root (year 3 or 4).
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: chlorosis (yellow leaves) in A. montana caused by alkaline soil.
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Sowing rate: 8-10g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in seedflats or plugs 20 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8 weeks.
Pests: few problems, whitefly occasionally
Diseases: few problems.
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Lemon Balm
(Melissa officinalis) |
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Market
|
Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 75 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 2000 seeds/gram
Exposure: sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained clay or sandy loam, pH 6 to 7.5
Crop duration: 2-4 years
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Sowing rate: 7-9kg/ha (direct), 250-400g/ha (indirect, in plugs).
Planting: sowing in plugs in greenhouse in early spring till mid-summer is most common method; sow 6-8 weeks before transplanting to field. Direct sowing is not as common because weed control is more difficult; sow in early spring or late fall (to come up next spring).
Field spacing: 50-75cm between rows x 18-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry herb 5000kg/ha, fresh herb 10-25t/ha (years 1-3).
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: erisyphe powdery mildew, septoria blight, puccinia rust.
Buyers want: dry carefully to conserve oil in dried herb.
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Sowing rate: 3-5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in flats or plugs 11-14 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spidermite, thrip
Diseases: mildew.
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Basil
(Ocimum basilicum, and others ) |
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Market
|
Products: (leaf, herb); (herb); (oil);
Market size: 10,000 hectares (world), 1,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 500-1000 (O. gratissimum 2600, O. kilamandscharicum 2800, O. sanctum 1500-2500) seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: rich, well-drained
Crop duration: 1 year (O. basilicum), 1-3 years (others)
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Sowing rate: 20kg/ha (direct); 3-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in spring when nighttime temperatures exceed 10°C; or sow in flats or plugs 8 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 15-25cm within rows.
Yield: fresh herb 15,000kg/ha, dry herb 1,500-2,000kg/ha, oil 30kg/ha (year 1)
Pests: aphids, thrips
Diseases: O. basilicum varieties are highly susceptible to fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum) disease. Disease persists in soil for several years. Commercial field plantings should be sown with fusarium-tolerant Nufar F1. Hydroponic operations may choose fusarium-free varieties if equipment and facilities are free of fusarium (spreads by contaminated seeds and equipment). Other basil species (e.g. O. americanum and O. gratissimum) are fusarium-tolerant.
Buyers want: not less than 0.4% essential oil in dried product.
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Sowing rate: 3-4g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in final pots, or in plugs and later transplant to final pots. Nighttime temperature must not go below 10°C.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, thrips, aphids
Diseases: fusarium (see above).
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Bay Laurel
(Laurus nobilis ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (leaf);
Market size: 2,000 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 1 seeds/gram
Exposure: sheltered position in full or half sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, moist
Crop duration: 20-50 years
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Sowing rate: 30-60kg/ha
Planting: sow stratified seeds in beds or flats.
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: leaves dried flat for visual appearance.
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Sowing rate: 5kg/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or flats in March or April.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks (after stratification).
Plugs to saleable plants: 10 weeks to a year.
Pests: whitefly, scale, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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Borage
(Borago officinalis ) |
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Market
|
Products: (seed, herb, flower, root); (herb, flower, root), (seed);
Market size: 5,000 hectares (world); 2,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, acreage up
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Culture |
Seed density: 50 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: best in well-drained, fertile, moist soil, but tolerates most soils, pH 5-8
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 5-17 kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in late spring in rows 45-90cm apart, 30-45cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 300kg/ha; fresh flower 1,000-5,000kg/ha; seed 90-450kg/ha.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: 24% gamma lineolenic acid content in seed oil.
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Sowing rate: 50-80g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots or plugs.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
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Burdock
(Arctium lappa) |
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Market
|
Products: (root, leaf); (root);
Market size: 3,000 hectares (world), 170 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 60-110 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or part sun
Soil: deep, loose, humus-rich, pH 6-8
Crop duration: 1-2 years
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Sowing rate: 4 kg/ha (direct), 1.5kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring. Or, sow in beds or plugs and transplant to field in spring. For use as fresh vegetable, dig first year roots when young and tender at 3-5 months. For dry root production, dig in fall of second year.
Field spacing: 45-90cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry root 2,000kg/ha (years 2 or 3).
Pests: few problems, grasshopper
Diseases: few problems.
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Sowing rate: 20g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs 9-10 weeks before sale.
Seeds to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Calendula
(C. officinalis) |
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Market
|
Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 880 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 150 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained; can tolerate poor soil with low nitrogen.
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 3-9kg/ha (direct), 1kg/ha (indirect in plugs).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring or autumn; or sow in plugs 4-6 weeks before field planting. Seeds need light to germinate; cover seeds lightly or press in soil only.
Field spacing: 20-70cm between rows x 10-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 1-2,000kg/ha, fresh flower 6-9,000kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: blister-beetle, cabbage-looper, caterpillar, leafhopper
Diseases: leaf spot, aster-yellows.
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Sowing rate: 15g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or direct in pots 10-12 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 4-6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, aphid, thrip, mealybug
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Caraway
(Carum carvi) |
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Market
|
Products: (seed); (seed)
Market size: 19,000 hectares (world), 2,500 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 350-400 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, pH 6-7.8.
Crop duration: 1-2 years (depending on variety)
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Sowing rate: 8-11 kg/ha.
Planting: sow standard biennial type direct in field late June or early July; harvest following year in August. Sow annual type in May (suited for warmer regions with 5-6 frost-free months). Sometimes sown with annual cover crops such as coriander, dill, mustard the first year.
Field spacing: 10-50cm between rows x 4-15cm within rows.
Yield: seed 600-3,000kg/ha, oil 4.5-7kg/ha (year 1 or 2, depending on variety).
Pests: leafhopper
Diseases: aster yellows.
Buyers want: seed minimum 3% oil, maximum 12% moisture.
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Catnip
(Nepeta cataria ) |
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Market
|
Products: (herb, leaf);
Market size: 2,400 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 1500-1600 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or partial sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, sandy, pH 6.5
Crop duration: 2-5 years
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Sowing rate: 12 kg/ha (direct), 1kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring or late fall. Or, sow in plugs 8-10 weeks before field planting. Seed needs light to germinate; sow shallow 2-4mm deep.
Field spacing: 45-90cm between rows x 30-40cm within rows.
Harvest: leaf, herb (years 2-5).
Yield: dry herb 3-6t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
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Sowing rate: 3g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or seedflats 12-15 weeks before sale. Sow 2-4mm deep.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8-10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3-5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
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Chamomile
(Matricaria recutita, Chamaemelum nobile ) |
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Market
|
Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 40,000 hectares (world), 4,800 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 10,000-18,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained, moist to dry
Crop duration: 1 year (M. recutita), 2-3 years (C. nobile)
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Sowing rate: 3-4 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect)
Planting: german (M. recutita) is sown direct in field in spring or fall. Fall sowings germinate following spring. Roman (C. nobile) is sown direct or indirect in plugs which are later planted in field. Surface sow only (needs light to germinate). Hand harvesting flowers problematic in areas where labour cost is high; mechanical harvesting still unproven.
Field spacing: 10-50cm between rows x 10-25cm within rows, or broadcast sown.
Yield: dry flower 350-500kg/ha (M. recutita; year 1), 600-1000 kg/ha (C. nobile; years 1-3).
Pests: cnephasia moth
Diseases: aster yellows.
Buyers want: 0.4% or more volatile oil.
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Sowing rate: 1g/1000plants.
Planting: german (M. recutita) not normally sold in pots; roman (C. nobile) and its varieties are sold in pots or plugs. Seeds need light to germinate; surface sow only.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4-6 weeks.
Pests: aphid, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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Chives
(Allium schoenoprasum, A. tuberosum ) |
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Market
|
Products: (leaf, flower); (leaf, flower);
Market size: 24,000 hectares (world), 3,200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 750 (A. schoenoprasum), 200-300 (A. tuberosum) seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, humus-rich
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 2-3 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring, or sow indirect in plugs 12-16 weeks before field planting. Field must be free of quackgrass otherwise harvests will be contaminated.
Field spacing: 30cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: fresh leaf 10-20t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: aphid
Diseases: puccinia rust, downy mildew.
Buyers want: good green colour (dry leaf).
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Sowing rate: 5-20g/1000plants (A. schoenoprasum), 50g/1000plants (A. tuberosum)
Planting: sow 10-15 seeds per plug or pot, or sow same amount direct in pots.
Seeds to saleable plants: 24-30 weeks.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12-16 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 11 weeks.
Pests: aphid, thrip
Diseases: few problems.
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Comfrey
(Symphytum officinale, S. x uplandicum) |
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Market
|
Products: (leaf, root); (root, herb);
Market size: 1,700 hectares (world), 240 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 90-100 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or part sun
Soil: moist, wet or dry
Crop duration: 2-5 years
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Sowing rate: 600-900g/ha (indirect).
Planting: although seed can be sown direct, the high cost of seed dictates indirect sowing in plugs or seedbed and transplanting to field. Root cuttings (12,000/ha) of named cultivars (e.g. Bocking No. 14) recommended over seed.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 90cm within rows.
Yield: dry leaf 12t/ha (years 2-5), dry root 1,800kg/ha (year 3, 4 or 5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: comfrey rust.
Buyers want: low pyrrolizidine alkaloid content, particularly echimidine; leaf should be cut early to avoid alkaloid buildup.
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Sowing rate: 50-70g/1000plants.
Planting: sow S. officinale in plugs or seedflats 12-14 weeks before sale. S. x uplandicum and ornamental varieties are propagated by division or root cutting.
Seeds to saleable plants: 12 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, aphid
Diseases: comfrey rust.
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Coriander, Cilantro
(Coriandrum sativum) |
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Market
|
Products: (seed); (herb); (seed, herb);
Market size: 600,000 hectares (world), 5,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 110-150 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun (seed), full or half sun (fresh herb)
Soil: deep, fertile, light or heavy, well-drained, pH 6.5-7.5
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 25 kg/ha (seed), 80 kg/ha (fresh herb).
Planting: for seed and seed oil production, sow direct in spring. For fresh herb (cilantro) and herb oil production sow early spring and fall; will bolt in hot weather.
Field spacing: 50-60cm between rows x 11-13cm between plants (seed), 20-25cm between rows x 8-10cm (fresh herb).
Yield: seed 900-1,500kg/ha, fresh herb 10-12t/ha, oil 1-9kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: thrip
Diseases: asters yellow, erysiphe powdery mildew, puccinia rust, pseudamonas, and sclerotina.
Buyers want: less than 12% moisture.
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Sowing rate: 200g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots; do not transplant – root disturbance causes plants to bolt early.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: aphid, thrip, mite, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Dandelion
(Taraxacum officinale) |
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Market
|
Products: (root, herb); (leaf)
Market size: 7,000 hectares (world); 500 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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|
Culture |
Seed density: 1200-1900 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: most soils
Crop duration: 2 years (root), 1-4 years (fresh leaf)
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|
Sowing rate: 1-3kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring or late summer. Fresh leaf gathered as vegetable spring, summer and fall. Herb for drying harvested spring or summer. Roots dug late fall.
Field spacing: 45cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: dry root 1100-1700kg/ha (year 2).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: water-soluble extractive not less than 30%.
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Dill
(Anethum graveolens, A. sowa ) |
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Market
|
Products: (seed, herb); (leaf); (leaf, seed);
Market size: 37,000 hectares (world), 4,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices same, volume up
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|
Culture |
Seed density: 400-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, moderately rich, loose soil, pH 5.5-6.5
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 9-12 kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in spring.
Field spacing: 25-50cm between rows; thin to 10cm within rows for fresh herb production or 2-3cm within rows for seed production.
Yield: seed 600-900kg/ha, fresh herb 2500-5000kg/ha, dried herb 1000kg/ha, oil 50-110kg/ha.
Pests: aphid, tarnished plant bug
Diseases: powdery mildew, leafspot, aster yellows.
Buyers want: good green colour (dried leaf).
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Sowing rate: 15-40g/1000pots.
Planting: do not transplant; sow direct in pots, 8-20 seeds per pot.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: aphid
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Echinacea
(Echinacea purpurea, E. angustifolia, E. pallida ) |
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Market
|
Products: (root, herb, flower, seed); (herb);
Market size: 16,000 hectares (world), 4,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices down, acreage up; market for E. purpurea herb is weak.
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|
Culture |
Seed density: 160-500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained, pH 6-7.5
Crop duration: 3-4 years
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|
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Sowing rate: 14-18 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: E. purpurea seeds do not require pretreatment. Can be started in plugs and transplanted to the field, which is the preferred method, or can be sown direct in the field. Sow E. purpurea 100-120 days before field planting; sow E. angustifolia and E. pallida 150 days before planting. E. angustifolia and E. pallida germination benefits from pretreatment; stratify at 5°C for 4-12 weeks with light. Pretreatment with Ethrel (1 millimolar for 2 weeks), or with bleach (1% for 10 min.) improves E. angustifolia germination.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 20-45cm within rows.
Yield: E. purpurea herb 6,500-11,000kg/ha (years 2-4); E. purpurea root 1000kg/ha (year 4); E. angustifolia root 1100kg/ha (year 4); no data for E. pallida root.
Pests: leafhopper
Diseases: aster yellows (spread by leafhoppers), sclerotinia stem and root rot, botrytis.
Buyers want: certificate of botanical identity required for E. angustifolia; echinacoside 1.4% (roots).
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|
Sowing rate: 10g/1000plants.
Planting: sow 14 weeks (E. purpurea) to 22 weeks (E. angustifolia, E. pallida) before sale. Stratify or pretreat E. angustifolia and E. pallida seed before sowing (see above).
Seeds to finished plugs: 8-12 weeks (after pretreatment).
Plugs to saleable plants: 6-10 weeks.
Pests: few problems, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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| |
Elecampane
(Inula helenium ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (root); (root);
Market size: 800 hectares (world), 25 ha (North America).
Prospects: prices same, volume same
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 600-800 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: moist, deep, well-drained
Crop duration: 2 years.
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|
Sowing rate: 400-600g/ha (direct); 5g/1000plants (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing not recommended. Start in plugs 8 weeks before spring or late summer field planting.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 45cm within rows.
Yield: 2500kg/ha (year 2).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: erysiphe powdery mildew (late summer), ramularia leafspot, puccinia rust.
Buyers want: not less than 1.8% volatile oil, not more than 6-8% ash, not less than 27% water-soluble extractive, not more than 2% foreign matter.
|
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|
Sowing rate: 5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs, seedflats or seed beds. Germination in 4-7 days.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 2-6 weeks.
Pests: spider mite, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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| |
Fennel
(Foeniculum vulgare) |
|
Market
|
Products: (seed); (leaf, bulb); (herb);
Market size: 70,000 hectares (world), 7,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 200-300 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, deep, moderately fertile, pH 7-8.
Crop duration: 2-3 years (florence fennel, 1 year)
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|
Sowing rate: 4-6kg/ha (direct), 30g/1000plants (indirect).
Planting: sow sweet fennel direct; bronze direct or indirect; florence indirect.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: seed 1000-1600kg/ha (years 2-3), fresh herb 8-10t/ha (year 1-3), dried herb 1.5-2.5t/ha (year 1-3), seed oil 40-75kg/ha.
Pests: aphid, lygus tarnished plant bug
Diseases: sclerotinia stemrot, rhizoctonia damping-off, erwinia soft rot.
Buyers want: not less than 2-4% volatile oil.
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|
|
Sowing rate: 30g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots or in plugs. Does not transplant well; best to sow direct.
Seeds to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3 weeks.
Pests: aphid
Diseases: damping-off.
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| |
Fenugreek
(Trigonella foenum-graecum) |
|
Market
|
Products: (seeds, leaf, herb); (herb, sprouts); (seed)
Market size: 90,000 hectares (world), 7,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 100 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, warm soil
Crop duration: 1 year.
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|
Sowing rate: 25-35kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in spring. Broadcast or in close rows.
Field spacing: 20cm between rows x 10-20cm within rows.
Yield: seed 700-900kg/ha, dried forage 2-10t/ha.
Pests: no data
Diseases: no data.
Buyers want: swelling index not less than 6, foreign matter not more than 2-5%, ash not more than 5-6% (seed).
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| |
Feverfew
(Tanacetum parthenium) |
|
Market
|
Products: (herb);
Market size: 1,300 hectares (world), 160 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume down
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 7,500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained, dry soil
Crop duration: 1-2 years
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 1-1.5 kg/ha (direct); 0.5g/1000plants.
Planting: plugs preferred over direct sowing because seeds very small. Sow plugs 8 weeks before spring planting date. Don't allow to go to seed to avoid winterkill. Frequent fertilization with low nitrogen fertilizer is beneficial. Long days trigger flowering. Short lived perennial; some growers treat as annual.
Field spacing: 20-90cm between rows x 10-20cm within rows.
Yield: 300-5000kg/ha (years 1-2).
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: minimum 0.4-0.8% parthenolide.
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|
|
Sowing rate: 0.5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow 14-16 weeks before sales in flats or plug trays.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6-8 weeks.
Pests: aphid, whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
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| |
Alfalfa
(Medicago sativa ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (seeds, leaf, herb); (herb, sprouts)
Market size: (excluding acreage planted for fodder): 12,000 hectares (world); 5,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices and acreage up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 350 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained; pH 6.0-7.5
Crop duration: 1-4 years
|
|
(herb) |
Sowing rate: 9-13kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring, broadcast or sow in rows, 15-30cm apart. Two or more cuts at bud stage possible; last cut 6 weeks before killing frost. Heavy potash and phosphorus feeder.
Yield: dry herb 8-10,000kg/ha (years 1-4).
Pests: weevil, leafminer, leafhopper, snout beetle
Diseases: verticillium wilt, leafspot, phytophthora root rot.
Buyers want: organic product.
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|
(sprouts) |
Planting: soak seeds overnight; drain, keep moist. Ready in 3-5 days.
Yield: 4kg(sprouts)/kg(seeds).
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| |
Arnica
(A. montana, A. chamissonis) |
|
Market
|
Products: (flower, root); (flower);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 160 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume down
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 700-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, humus-rich, pH 7 (A. chamissonis), pH 4.5-6 (A. montana)
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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|
|
Sowing rate: 1-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing not recommended. Sow in seedflats or plugs. Sow A. montana 16-20 weeks before transplanting to field; sow A. chamissonis 12 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 15-60cm between rows x 15-20cm within rows.
Harvest: flower (years 2-5), root (year 3 or 4).
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: chlorosis (yellow leaves) in A. montana caused by alkaline soil.
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|
|
Sowing rate: 8-10g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in seedflats or plugs 20 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8 weeks.
Pests: few problems, whitefly occasionally
Diseases: few problems.
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| |
Lemon Balm
(Melissa officinalis) |
|
Market
|
Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 75 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 2000 seeds/gram
Exposure: sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained clay or sandy loam, pH 6 to 7.5
Crop duration: 2-4 years
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 7-9kg/ha (direct), 250-400g/ha (indirect, in plugs).
Planting: sowing in plugs in greenhouse in early spring till mid-summer is most common method; sow 6-8 weeks before transplanting to field. Direct sowing is not as common because weed control is more difficult; sow in early spring or late fall (to come up next spring).
Field spacing: 50-75cm between rows x 18-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry herb 5000kg/ha, fresh herb 10-25t/ha (years 1-3).
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: erisyphe powdery mildew, septoria blight, puccinia rust.
Buyers want: dry carefully to conserve oil in dried herb.
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|
|
Sowing rate: 3-5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in flats or plugs 11-14 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spidermite, thrip
Diseases: mildew.
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| |
Basil
(Ocimum basilicum, and others ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (leaf, herb); (herb); (oil);
Market size: 10,000 hectares (world), 1,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 500-1000 (O. gratissimum 2600, O. kilamandscharicum 2800, O. sanctum 1500-2500) seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: rich, well-drained
Crop duration: 1 year (O. basilicum), 1-3 years (others)
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|
|
Sowing rate: 20kg/ha (direct); 3-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in spring when nighttime temperatures exceed 10°C; or sow in flats or plugs 8 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 15-25cm within rows.
Yield: fresh herb 15,000kg/ha, dry herb 1,500-2,000kg/ha, oil 30kg/ha (year 1)
Pests: aphids, thrips
Diseases: O. basilicum varieties are highly susceptible to fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum) disease. Disease persists in soil for several years. Commercial field plantings should be sown with fusarium-tolerant Nufar F1. Hydroponic operations may choose fusarium-free varieties if equipment and facilities are free of fusarium (spreads by contaminated seeds and equipment). Other basil species (e.g. O. americanum and O. gratissimum) are fusarium-tolerant.
Buyers want: not less than 0.4% essential oil in dried product.
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|
|
Sowing rate: 3-4g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in final pots, or in plugs and later transplant to final pots. Nighttime temperature must not go below 10°C.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, thrips, aphids
Diseases: fusarium (see above).
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| |
Bay Laurel
(Laurus nobilis ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (leaf); (leaf);
Market size: 2,000 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 1 seeds/gram
Exposure: sheltered position in full or half sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, moist
Crop duration: 20-50 years
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|
Sowing rate: 30-60kg/ha
Planting: sow stratified seeds in beds or flats.
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: leaves dried flat for visual appearance.
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|
|
Sowing rate: 5kg/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or flats in March or April.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks (after stratification).
Plugs to saleable plants: 10 weeks to a year.
Pests: whitefly, scale, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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| |
Borage
(Borago officinalis ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (seed, herb, flower, root); (herb, flower, root), (seed);
Market size: 5,000 hectares (world); 2,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, acreage up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 50 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: best in well-drained, fertile, moist soil, but tolerates most soils, pH 5-8
Crop duration: 1 year
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|
|
Sowing rate: 5-17 kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in late spring in rows 45-90cm apart, 30-45cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 300kg/ha; fresh flower 1,000-5,000kg/ha; seed 90-450kg/ha.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: 24% gamma lineolenic acid content in seed oil.
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|
|
Sowing rate: 50-80g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots or plugs.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
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| |
Burdock
(Arctium lappa) |
|
Market
|
Products: (root, leaf); (root);
Market size: 3,000 hectares (world), 170 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 60-110 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or part sun
Soil: deep, loose, humus-rich, pH 6-8
Crop duration: 1-2 years
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|
|
Sowing rate: 4 kg/ha (direct), 1.5kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring. Or, sow in beds or plugs and transplant to field in spring. For use as fresh vegetable, dig first year roots when young and tender at 3-5 months. For dry root production, dig in fall of second year.
Field spacing: 45-90cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry root 2,000kg/ha (years 2 or 3).
Pests: few problems, grasshopper
Diseases: few problems.
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|
|
Sowing rate: 20g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs 9-10 weeks before sale.
Seeds to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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| |
Calendula
(C. officinalis) |
|
Market
|
Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 880 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 150 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained; can tolerate poor soil with low nitrogen.
Crop duration: 1 year
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 3-9kg/ha (direct), 1kg/ha (indirect in plugs).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring or autumn; or sow in plugs 4-6 weeks before field planting. Seeds need light to germinate; cover seeds lightly or press in soil only.
Field spacing: 20-70cm between rows x 10-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 1-2,000kg/ha, fresh flower 6-9,000kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: blister-beetle, cabbage-looper, caterpillar, leafhopper
Diseases: leaf spot, aster-yellows.
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|
|
Sowing rate: 15g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or direct in pots 10-12 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 4-6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, aphid, thrip, mealybug
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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| |
Caraway
(Carum carvi) |
|
Market
|
Products: (seed); (seed)
Market size: 19,000 hectares (world), 2,500 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 350-400 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, pH 6-7.8.
Crop duration: 1-2 years (depending on variety)
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|
|
Sowing rate: 8-11 kg/ha.
Planting: sow standard biennial type direct in field late June or early July; harvest following year in August. Sow annual type in May (suited for warmer regions with 5-6 frost-free months). Sometimes sown with annual cover crops such as coriander, dill, mustard the first year.
Field spacing: 10-50cm between rows x 4-15cm within rows.
Yield: seed 600-3,000kg/ha, oil 4.5-7kg/ha (year 1 or 2, depending on variety).
Pests: leafhopper
Diseases: aster yellows.
Buyers want: seed minimum 3% oil, maximum 12% moisture.
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| |
Catnip
(Nepeta cataria ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (herb, leaf);
Market size: 2,400 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 1500-1600 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or partial sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, sandy, pH 6.5
Crop duration: 2-5 years
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 12 kg/ha (direct), 1kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring or late fall. Or, sow in plugs 8-10 weeks before field planting. Seed needs light to germinate; sow shallow 2-4mm deep.
Field spacing: 45-90cm between rows x 30-40cm within rows.
Harvest: leaf, herb (years 2-5).
Yield: dry herb 3-6t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 3g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or seedflats 12-15 weeks before sale. Sow 2-4mm deep.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8-10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3-5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
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|
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| |
Chamomile
(Matricaria recutita, Chamaemelum nobile ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 40,000 hectares (world), 4,800 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 10,000-18,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained, moist to dry
Crop duration: 1 year (M. recutita), 2-3 years (C. nobile)
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|
|
Sowing rate: 3-4 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect)
Planting: german (M. recutita) is sown direct in field in spring or fall. Fall sowings germinate following spring. Roman (C. nobile) is sown direct or indirect in plugs which are later planted in field. Surface sow only (needs light to germinate). Hand harvesting flowers problematic in areas where labour cost is high; mechanical harvesting still unproven.
Field spacing: 10-50cm between rows x 10-25cm within rows, or broadcast sown.
Yield: dry flower 350-500kg/ha (M. recutita; year 1), 600-1000 kg/ha (C. nobile; years 1-3).
Pests: cnephasia moth
Diseases: aster yellows.
Buyers want: 0.4% or more volatile oil.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 1g/1000plants.
Planting: german (M. recutita) not normally sold in pots; roman (C. nobile) and its varieties are sold in pots or plugs. Seeds need light to germinate; surface sow only.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4-6 weeks.
Pests: aphid, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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| |
Chives
(Allium schoenoprasum, A. tuberosum ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (leaf, flower); (leaf, flower);
Market size: 24,000 hectares (world), 3,200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 750 (A. schoenoprasum), 200-300 (A. tuberosum) seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, humus-rich
Crop duration: 3-5 years
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 2-3 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring, or sow indirect in plugs 12-16 weeks before field planting. Field must be free of quackgrass otherwise harvests will be contaminated.
Field spacing: 30cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: fresh leaf 10-20t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: aphid
Diseases: puccinia rust, downy mildew.
Buyers want: good green colour (dry leaf).
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|
|
Sowing rate: 5-20g/1000plants (A. schoenoprasum), 50g/1000plants (A. tuberosum)
Planting: sow 10-15 seeds per plug or pot, or sow same amount direct in pots.
Seeds to saleable plants: 24-30 weeks.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12-16 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 11 weeks.
Pests: aphid, thrip
Diseases: few problems.
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|
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| |
Comfrey
(Symphytum officinale, S. x uplandicum) |
|
Market
|
Products: (leaf, root); (root, herb);
Market size: 1,700 hectares (world), 240 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 90-100 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or part sun
Soil: moist, wet or dry
Crop duration: 2-5 years
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 600-900g/ha (indirect).
Planting: although seed can be sown direct, the high cost of seed dictates indirect sowing in plugs or seedbed and transplanting to field. Root cuttings (12,000/ha) of named cultivars (e.g. Bocking No. 14) recommended over seed.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 90cm within rows.
Yield: dry leaf 12t/ha (years 2-5), dry root 1,800kg/ha (year 3, 4 or 5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: comfrey rust.
Buyers want: low pyrrolizidine alkaloid content, particularly echimidine; leaf should be cut early to avoid alkaloid buildup.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 50-70g/1000plants.
Planting: sow S. officinale in plugs or seedflats 12-14 weeks before sale. S. x uplandicum and ornamental varieties are propagated by division or root cutting.
Seeds to saleable plants: 12 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, aphid
Diseases: comfrey rust.
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|
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| |
Coriander, Cilantro
(Coriandrum sativum) |
|
Market
|
Products: (seed); (herb); (seed, herb);
Market size: 600,000 hectares (world), 5,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 110-150 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun (seed), full or half sun (fresh herb)
Soil: deep, fertile, light or heavy, well-drained, pH 6.5-7.5
Crop duration: 1 year
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 25 kg/ha (seed), 80 kg/ha (fresh herb).
Planting: for seed and seed oil production, sow direct in spring. For fresh herb (cilantro) and herb oil production sow early spring and fall; will bolt in hot weather.
Field spacing: 50-60cm between rows x 11-13cm between plants (seed), 20-25cm between rows x 8-10cm (fresh herb).
Yield: seed 900-1,500kg/ha, fresh herb 10-12t/ha, oil 1-9kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: thrip
Diseases: asters yellow, erysiphe powdery mildew, puccinia rust, pseudamonas, and sclerotina.
Buyers want: less than 12% moisture.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 200g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots; do not transplant – root disturbance causes plants to bolt early.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: aphid, thrip, mite, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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|
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| |
Dandelion
(Taraxacum officinale) |
|
Market
|
Products: (root, herb); (leaf)
Market size: 7,000 hectares (world); 500 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 1200-1900 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: most soils
Crop duration: 2 years (root), 1-4 years (fresh leaf)
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 1-3kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring or late summer. Fresh leaf gathered as vegetable spring, summer and fall. Herb for drying harvested spring or summer. Roots dug late fall.
Field spacing: 45cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: dry root 1100-1700kg/ha (year 2).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: water-soluble extractive not less than 30%.
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| |
Dill
(Anethum graveolens, A. sowa ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (seed, herb); (leaf); (leaf, seed);
Market size: 37,000 hectares (world), 4,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices same, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 400-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, moderately rich, loose soil, pH 5.5-6.5
Crop duration: 1 year
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 9-12 kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in spring.
Field spacing: 25-50cm between rows; thin to 10cm within rows for fresh herb production or 2-3cm within rows for seed production.
Yield: seed 600-900kg/ha, fresh herb 2500-5000kg/ha, dried herb 1000kg/ha, oil 50-110kg/ha.
Pests: aphid, tarnished plant bug
Diseases: powdery mildew, leafspot, aster yellows.
Buyers want: good green colour (dried leaf).
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 15-40g/1000pots.
Planting: do not transplant; sow direct in pots, 8-20 seeds per pot.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: aphid
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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|
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|
| |
Echinacea
(Echinacea purpurea, E. angustifolia, E. pallida ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (root, herb, flower, seed); (herb);
Market size: 16,000 hectares (world), 4,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices down, acreage up; market for E. purpurea herb is weak.
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 160-500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained, pH 6-7.5
Crop duration: 3-4 years
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 14-18 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: E. purpurea seeds do not require pretreatment. Can be started in plugs and transplanted to the field, which is the preferred method, or can be sown direct in the field. Sow E. purpurea 100-120 days before field planting; sow E. angustifolia and E. pallida 150 days before planting. E. angustifolia and E. pallida germination benefits from pretreatment; stratify at 5°C for 4-12 weeks with light. Pretreatment with Ethrel (1 millimolar for 2 weeks), or with bleach (1% for 10 min.) improves E. angustifolia germination.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 20-45cm within rows.
Yield: E. purpurea herb 6,500-11,000kg/ha (years 2-4); E. purpurea root 1000kg/ha (year 4); E. angustifolia root 1100kg/ha (year 4); no data for E. pallida root.
Pests: leafhopper
Diseases: aster yellows (spread by leafhoppers), sclerotinia stem and root rot, botrytis.
Buyers want: certificate of botanical identity required for E. angustifolia; echinacoside 1.4% (roots).
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Sowing rate: 10g/1000plants.
Planting: sow 14 weeks (E. purpurea) to 22 weeks (E. angustifolia, E. pallida) before sale. Stratify or pretreat E. angustifolia and E. pallida seed before sowing (see above).
Seeds to finished plugs: 8-12 weeks (after pretreatment).
Plugs to saleable plants: 6-10 weeks.
Pests: few problems, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Elecampane
(Inula helenium ) |
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Market
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Products: (root); (root);
Market size: 800 hectares (world), 25 ha (North America).
Prospects: prices same, volume same
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Culture |
Seed density: 600-800 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: moist, deep, well-drained
Crop duration: 2 years.
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Sowing rate: 400-600g/ha (direct); 5g/1000plants (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing not recommended. Start in plugs 8 weeks before spring or late summer field planting.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 45cm within rows.
Yield: 2500kg/ha (year 2).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: erysiphe powdery mildew (late summer), ramularia leafspot, puccinia rust.
Buyers want: not less than 1.8% volatile oil, not more than 6-8% ash, not less than 27% water-soluble extractive, not more than 2% foreign matter.
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Sowing rate: 5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs, seedflats or seed beds. Germination in 4-7 days.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 2-6 weeks.
Pests: spider mite, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Fennel
(Foeniculum vulgare) |
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Market
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Products: (seed); (leaf, bulb); (herb);
Market size: 70,000 hectares (world), 7,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 200-300 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, deep, moderately fertile, pH 7-8.
Crop duration: 2-3 years (florence fennel, 1 year)
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Sowing rate: 4-6kg/ha (direct), 30g/1000plants (indirect).
Planting: sow sweet fennel direct; bronze direct or indirect; florence indirect.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: seed 1000-1600kg/ha (years 2-3), fresh herb 8-10t/ha (year 1-3), dried herb 1.5-2.5t/ha (year 1-3), seed oil 40-75kg/ha.
Pests: aphid, lygus tarnished plant bug
Diseases: sclerotinia stemrot, rhizoctonia damping-off, erwinia soft rot.
Buyers want: not less than 2-4% volatile oil.
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Sowing rate: 30g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots or in plugs. Does not transplant well; best to sow direct.
Seeds to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3 weeks.
Pests: aphid
Diseases: damping-off.
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Fenugreek
(Trigonella foenum-graecum) |
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Market
|
Products: (seeds, leaf, herb); (herb, sprouts); (seed)
Market size: 90,000 hectares (world), 7,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 100 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, warm soil
Crop duration: 1 year.
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Sowing rate: 25-35kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in spring. Broadcast or in close rows.
Field spacing: 20cm between rows x 10-20cm within rows.
Yield: seed 700-900kg/ha, dried forage 2-10t/ha.
Pests: no data
Diseases: no data.
Buyers want: swelling index not less than 6, foreign matter not more than 2-5%, ash not more than 5-6% (seed).
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Feverfew
(Tanacetum parthenium) |
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Market
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Products: (herb);
Market size: 1,300 hectares (world), 160 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume down
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Culture |
Seed density: 7,500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained, dry soil
Crop duration: 1-2 years
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Sowing rate: 1-1.5 kg/ha (direct); 0.5g/1000plants.
Planting: plugs preferred over direct sowing because seeds very small. Sow plugs 8 weeks before spring planting date. Don't allow to go to seed to avoid winterkill. Frequent fertilization with low nitrogen fertilizer is beneficial. Long days trigger flowering. Short lived perennial; some growers treat as annual.
Field spacing: 20-90cm between rows x 10-20cm within rows.
Yield: 300-5000kg/ha (years 1-2).
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: minimum 0.4-0.8% parthenolide.
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Sowing rate: 0.5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow 14-16 weeks before sales in flats or plug trays.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6-8 weeks.
Pests: aphid, whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
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Scented Geranium
(Pelargonium spp. ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (leaf);
Market size: 4,000 hectares (world), 400 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 360-450 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, neutral to alkaline
Crop duration: 1 year temperate areas, 3-5 year in tropical areas.d o Planting: all commercially important varieties are propagated by cuttings. Plugs planted in spring after last frost date. FieldSpacing: 60-100cm between rows x 20-50cm within rows. Yield: fresh leaf 13-30t/ha, oil 13-17kg/ha (years 1-5). PestsDiseases: aphid, caterpillar / alternaria leaf spot.
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Seeds/ |
Planting: all commercially important varieties are propagated by cuttings. Plugs planted in spring after last frost date.
Field spacing: 60-100cm between rows x 20-50cm within rows.
Yield: fresh leaf 13-30t/ha, oil 13-17kg/ha (years 1-5).
Pests: aphid, caterpillar
Diseases: alternaria leaf spot.
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Sowing rate: 30-80g/1000 plants.
Planting: commercial propagation is by cutting only.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6-8 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, geranium and peach aphid, mite, mealybug, scale
Diseases: various leaf spots including xanthomonas, alternaria, botrytis.
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Alfalfa
(Medicago sativa ) |
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Market
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Products: (seeds, leaf, herb); (herb, sprouts)
Market size: (excluding acreage planted for fodder): 12,000 hectares (world); 5,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices and acreage up
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Culture |
Seed density: 350 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained; pH 6.0-7.5
Crop duration: 1-4 years
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(herb) |
Sowing rate: 9-13kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring, broadcast or sow in rows, 15-30cm apart. Two or more cuts at bud stage possible; last cut 6 weeks before killing frost. Heavy potash and phosphorus feeder.
Yield: dry herb 8-10,000kg/ha (years 1-4).
Pests: weevil, leafminer, leafhopper, snout beetle
Diseases: verticillium wilt, leafspot, phytophthora root rot.
Buyers want: organic product.
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(sprouts) |
Planting: soak seeds overnight; drain, keep moist. Ready in 3-5 days.
Yield: 4kg(sprouts)/kg(seeds).
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Arnica
(A. montana, A. chamissonis) |
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Market
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Products: (flower, root); (flower);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 160 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume down
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Culture |
Seed density: 700-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, humus-rich, pH 7 (A. chamissonis), pH 4.5-6 (A. montana)
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 1-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing not recommended. Sow in seedflats or plugs. Sow A. montana 16-20 weeks before transplanting to field; sow A. chamissonis 12 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 15-60cm between rows x 15-20cm within rows.
Harvest: flower (years 2-5), root (year 3 or 4).
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: chlorosis (yellow leaves) in A. montana caused by alkaline soil.
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Sowing rate: 8-10g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in seedflats or plugs 20 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8 weeks.
Pests: few problems, whitefly occasionally
Diseases: few problems.
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Lemon Balm
(Melissa officinalis) |
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Market
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Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 75 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 2000 seeds/gram
Exposure: sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained clay or sandy loam, pH 6 to 7.5
Crop duration: 2-4 years
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Sowing rate: 7-9kg/ha (direct), 250-400g/ha (indirect, in plugs).
Planting: sowing in plugs in greenhouse in early spring till mid-summer is most common method; sow 6-8 weeks before transplanting to field. Direct sowing is not as common because weed control is more difficult; sow in early spring or late fall (to come up next spring).
Field spacing: 50-75cm between rows x 18-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry herb 5000kg/ha, fresh herb 10-25t/ha (years 1-3).
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: erisyphe powdery mildew, septoria blight, puccinia rust.
Buyers want: dry carefully to conserve oil in dried herb.
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Sowing rate: 3-5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in flats or plugs 11-14 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spidermite, thrip
Diseases: mildew.
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Basil
(Ocimum basilicum, and others ) |
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Market
|
Products: (leaf, herb); (herb); (oil);
Market size: 10,000 hectares (world), 1,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 500-1000 (O. gratissimum 2600, O. kilamandscharicum 2800, O. sanctum 1500-2500) seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: rich, well-drained
Crop duration: 1 year (O. basilicum), 1-3 years (others)
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Sowing rate: 20kg/ha (direct); 3-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in spring when nighttime temperatures exceed 10°C; or sow in flats or plugs 8 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 15-25cm within rows.
Yield: fresh herb 15,000kg/ha, dry herb 1,500-2,000kg/ha, oil 30kg/ha (year 1)
Pests: aphids, thrips
Diseases: O. basilicum varieties are highly susceptible to fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum) disease. Disease persists in soil for several years. Commercial field plantings should be sown with fusarium-tolerant Nufar F1. Hydroponic operations may choose fusarium-free varieties if equipment and facilities are free of fusarium (spreads by contaminated seeds and equipment). Other basil species (e.g. O. americanum and O. gratissimum) are fusarium-tolerant.
Buyers want: not less than 0.4% essential oil in dried product.
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Sowing rate: 3-4g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in final pots, or in plugs and later transplant to final pots. Nighttime temperature must not go below 10°C.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, thrips, aphids
Diseases: fusarium (see above).
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Bay Laurel
(Laurus nobilis ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (leaf);
Market size: 2,000 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 1 seeds/gram
Exposure: sheltered position in full or half sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, moist
Crop duration: 20-50 years
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Sowing rate: 30-60kg/ha
Planting: sow stratified seeds in beds or flats.
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: leaves dried flat for visual appearance.
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Sowing rate: 5kg/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or flats in March or April.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks (after stratification).
Plugs to saleable plants: 10 weeks to a year.
Pests: whitefly, scale, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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Borage
(Borago officinalis ) |
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Market
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Products: (seed, herb, flower, root); (herb, flower, root), (seed);
Market size: 5,000 hectares (world); 2,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, acreage up
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Culture |
Seed density: 50 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: best in well-drained, fertile, moist soil, but tolerates most soils, pH 5-8
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 5-17 kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in late spring in rows 45-90cm apart, 30-45cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 300kg/ha; fresh flower 1,000-5,000kg/ha; seed 90-450kg/ha.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: 24% gamma lineolenic acid content in seed oil.
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Sowing rate: 50-80g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots or plugs.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
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Burdock
(Arctium lappa) |
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Market
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Products: (root, leaf); (root);
Market size: 3,000 hectares (world), 170 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 60-110 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or part sun
Soil: deep, loose, humus-rich, pH 6-8
Crop duration: 1-2 years
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Sowing rate: 4 kg/ha (direct), 1.5kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring. Or, sow in beds or plugs and transplant to field in spring. For use as fresh vegetable, dig first year roots when young and tender at 3-5 months. For dry root production, dig in fall of second year.
Field spacing: 45-90cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry root 2,000kg/ha (years 2 or 3).
Pests: few problems, grasshopper
Diseases: few problems.
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Sowing rate: 20g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs 9-10 weeks before sale.
Seeds to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Calendula
(C. officinalis) |
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Market
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Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 880 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 150 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained; can tolerate poor soil with low nitrogen.
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 3-9kg/ha (direct), 1kg/ha (indirect in plugs).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring or autumn; or sow in plugs 4-6 weeks before field planting. Seeds need light to germinate; cover seeds lightly or press in soil only.
Field spacing: 20-70cm between rows x 10-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 1-2,000kg/ha, fresh flower 6-9,000kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: blister-beetle, cabbage-looper, caterpillar, leafhopper
Diseases: leaf spot, aster-yellows.
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Sowing rate: 15g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or direct in pots 10-12 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 4-6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, aphid, thrip, mealybug
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Caraway
(Carum carvi) |
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Market
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Products: (seed); (seed)
Market size: 19,000 hectares (world), 2,500 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 350-400 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, pH 6-7.8.
Crop duration: 1-2 years (depending on variety)
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Sowing rate: 8-11 kg/ha.
Planting: sow standard biennial type direct in field late June or early July; harvest following year in August. Sow annual type in May (suited for warmer regions with 5-6 frost-free months). Sometimes sown with annual cover crops such as coriander, dill, mustard the first year.
Field spacing: 10-50cm between rows x 4-15cm within rows.
Yield: seed 600-3,000kg/ha, oil 4.5-7kg/ha (year 1 or 2, depending on variety).
Pests: leafhopper
Diseases: aster yellows.
Buyers want: seed minimum 3% oil, maximum 12% moisture.
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Catnip
(Nepeta cataria ) |
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Market
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Products: (herb, leaf);
Market size: 2,400 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 1500-1600 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or partial sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, sandy, pH 6.5
Crop duration: 2-5 years
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Sowing rate: 12 kg/ha (direct), 1kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring or late fall. Or, sow in plugs 8-10 weeks before field planting. Seed needs light to germinate; sow shallow 2-4mm deep.
Field spacing: 45-90cm between rows x 30-40cm within rows.
Harvest: leaf, herb (years 2-5).
Yield: dry herb 3-6t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
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Sowing rate: 3g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or seedflats 12-15 weeks before sale. Sow 2-4mm deep.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8-10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3-5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
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Chamomile
(Matricaria recutita, Chamaemelum nobile ) |
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Market
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Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 40,000 hectares (world), 4,800 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 10,000-18,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained, moist to dry
Crop duration: 1 year (M. recutita), 2-3 years (C. nobile)
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Sowing rate: 3-4 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect)
Planting: german (M. recutita) is sown direct in field in spring or fall. Fall sowings germinate following spring. Roman (C. nobile) is sown direct or indirect in plugs which are later planted in field. Surface sow only (needs light to germinate). Hand harvesting flowers problematic in areas where labour cost is high; mechanical harvesting still unproven.
Field spacing: 10-50cm between rows x 10-25cm within rows, or broadcast sown.
Yield: dry flower 350-500kg/ha (M. recutita; year 1), 600-1000 kg/ha (C. nobile; years 1-3).
Pests: cnephasia moth
Diseases: aster yellows.
Buyers want: 0.4% or more volatile oil.
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Sowing rate: 1g/1000plants.
Planting: german (M. recutita) not normally sold in pots; roman (C. nobile) and its varieties are sold in pots or plugs. Seeds need light to germinate; surface sow only.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4-6 weeks.
Pests: aphid, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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Chives
(Allium schoenoprasum, A. tuberosum ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf, flower); (leaf, flower);
Market size: 24,000 hectares (world), 3,200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 750 (A. schoenoprasum), 200-300 (A. tuberosum) seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, humus-rich
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 2-3 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring, or sow indirect in plugs 12-16 weeks before field planting. Field must be free of quackgrass otherwise harvests will be contaminated.
Field spacing: 30cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: fresh leaf 10-20t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: aphid
Diseases: puccinia rust, downy mildew.
Buyers want: good green colour (dry leaf).
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Sowing rate: 5-20g/1000plants (A. schoenoprasum), 50g/1000plants (A. tuberosum)
Planting: sow 10-15 seeds per plug or pot, or sow same amount direct in pots.
Seeds to saleable plants: 24-30 weeks.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12-16 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 11 weeks.
Pests: aphid, thrip
Diseases: few problems.
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Comfrey
(Symphytum officinale, S. x uplandicum) |
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Market
|
Products: (leaf, root); (root, herb);
Market size: 1,700 hectares (world), 240 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 90-100 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or part sun
Soil: moist, wet or dry
Crop duration: 2-5 years
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Sowing rate: 600-900g/ha (indirect).
Planting: although seed can be sown direct, the high cost of seed dictates indirect sowing in plugs or seedbed and transplanting to field. Root cuttings (12,000/ha) of named cultivars (e.g. Bocking No. 14) recommended over seed.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 90cm within rows.
Yield: dry leaf 12t/ha (years 2-5), dry root 1,800kg/ha (year 3, 4 or 5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: comfrey rust.
Buyers want: low pyrrolizidine alkaloid content, particularly echimidine; leaf should be cut early to avoid alkaloid buildup.
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Sowing rate: 50-70g/1000plants.
Planting: sow S. officinale in plugs or seedflats 12-14 weeks before sale. S. x uplandicum and ornamental varieties are propagated by division or root cutting.
Seeds to saleable plants: 12 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, aphid
Diseases: comfrey rust.
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Coriander, Cilantro
(Coriandrum sativum) |
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Market
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Products: (seed); (herb); (seed, herb);
Market size: 600,000 hectares (world), 5,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 110-150 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun (seed), full or half sun (fresh herb)
Soil: deep, fertile, light or heavy, well-drained, pH 6.5-7.5
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 25 kg/ha (seed), 80 kg/ha (fresh herb).
Planting: for seed and seed oil production, sow direct in spring. For fresh herb (cilantro) and herb oil production sow early spring and fall; will bolt in hot weather.
Field spacing: 50-60cm between rows x 11-13cm between plants (seed), 20-25cm between rows x 8-10cm (fresh herb).
Yield: seed 900-1,500kg/ha, fresh herb 10-12t/ha, oil 1-9kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: thrip
Diseases: asters yellow, erysiphe powdery mildew, puccinia rust, pseudamonas, and sclerotina.
Buyers want: less than 12% moisture.
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Sowing rate: 200g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots; do not transplant – root disturbance causes plants to bolt early.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: aphid, thrip, mite, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Dandelion
(Taraxacum officinale) |
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Market
|
Products: (root, herb); (leaf)
Market size: 7,000 hectares (world); 500 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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|
Culture |
Seed density: 1200-1900 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: most soils
Crop duration: 2 years (root), 1-4 years (fresh leaf)
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Sowing rate: 1-3kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring or late summer. Fresh leaf gathered as vegetable spring, summer and fall. Herb for drying harvested spring or summer. Roots dug late fall.
Field spacing: 45cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: dry root 1100-1700kg/ha (year 2).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: water-soluble extractive not less than 30%.
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Dill
(Anethum graveolens, A. sowa ) |
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Market
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Products: (seed, herb); (leaf); (leaf, seed);
Market size: 37,000 hectares (world), 4,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices same, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 400-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, moderately rich, loose soil, pH 5.5-6.5
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 9-12 kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in spring.
Field spacing: 25-50cm between rows; thin to 10cm within rows for fresh herb production or 2-3cm within rows for seed production.
Yield: seed 600-900kg/ha, fresh herb 2500-5000kg/ha, dried herb 1000kg/ha, oil 50-110kg/ha.
Pests: aphid, tarnished plant bug
Diseases: powdery mildew, leafspot, aster yellows.
Buyers want: good green colour (dried leaf).
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Sowing rate: 15-40g/1000pots.
Planting: do not transplant; sow direct in pots, 8-20 seeds per pot.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: aphid
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Echinacea
(Echinacea purpurea, E. angustifolia, E. pallida ) |
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Market
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Products: (root, herb, flower, seed); (herb);
Market size: 16,000 hectares (world), 4,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices down, acreage up; market for E. purpurea herb is weak.
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Culture |
Seed density: 160-500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained, pH 6-7.5
Crop duration: 3-4 years
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Sowing rate: 14-18 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: E. purpurea seeds do not require pretreatment. Can be started in plugs and transplanted to the field, which is the preferred method, or can be sown direct in the field. Sow E. purpurea 100-120 days before field planting; sow E. angustifolia and E. pallida 150 days before planting. E. angustifolia and E. pallida germination benefits from pretreatment; stratify at 5°C for 4-12 weeks with light. Pretreatment with Ethrel (1 millimolar for 2 weeks), or with bleach (1% for 10 min.) improves E. angustifolia germination.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 20-45cm within rows.
Yield: E. purpurea herb 6,500-11,000kg/ha (years 2-4); E. purpurea root 1000kg/ha (year 4); E. angustifolia root 1100kg/ha (year 4); no data for E. pallida root.
Pests: leafhopper
Diseases: aster yellows (spread by leafhoppers), sclerotinia stem and root rot, botrytis.
Buyers want: certificate of botanical identity required for E. angustifolia; echinacoside 1.4% (roots).
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Sowing rate: 10g/1000plants.
Planting: sow 14 weeks (E. purpurea) to 22 weeks (E. angustifolia, E. pallida) before sale. Stratify or pretreat E. angustifolia and E. pallida seed before sowing (see above).
Seeds to finished plugs: 8-12 weeks (after pretreatment).
Plugs to saleable plants: 6-10 weeks.
Pests: few problems, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Elecampane
(Inula helenium ) |
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Market
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Products: (root); (root);
Market size: 800 hectares (world), 25 ha (North America).
Prospects: prices same, volume same
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Culture |
Seed density: 600-800 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: moist, deep, well-drained
Crop duration: 2 years.
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Sowing rate: 400-600g/ha (direct); 5g/1000plants (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing not recommended. Start in plugs 8 weeks before spring or late summer field planting.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 45cm within rows.
Yield: 2500kg/ha (year 2).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: erysiphe powdery mildew (late summer), ramularia leafspot, puccinia rust.
Buyers want: not less than 1.8% volatile oil, not more than 6-8% ash, not less than 27% water-soluble extractive, not more than 2% foreign matter.
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Sowing rate: 5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs, seedflats or seed beds. Germination in 4-7 days.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 2-6 weeks.
Pests: spider mite, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Fennel
(Foeniculum vulgare) |
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Market
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Products: (seed); (leaf, bulb); (herb);
Market size: 70,000 hectares (world), 7,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 200-300 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, deep, moderately fertile, pH 7-8.
Crop duration: 2-3 years (florence fennel, 1 year)
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Sowing rate: 4-6kg/ha (direct), 30g/1000plants (indirect).
Planting: sow sweet fennel direct; bronze direct or indirect; florence indirect.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: seed 1000-1600kg/ha (years 2-3), fresh herb 8-10t/ha (year 1-3), dried herb 1.5-2.5t/ha (year 1-3), seed oil 40-75kg/ha.
Pests: aphid, lygus tarnished plant bug
Diseases: sclerotinia stemrot, rhizoctonia damping-off, erwinia soft rot.
Buyers want: not less than 2-4% volatile oil.
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Sowing rate: 30g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots or in plugs. Does not transplant well; best to sow direct.
Seeds to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3 weeks.
Pests: aphid
Diseases: damping-off.
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Fenugreek
(Trigonella foenum-graecum) |
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Market
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Products: (seeds, leaf, herb); (herb, sprouts); (seed)
Market size: 90,000 hectares (world), 7,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 100 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, warm soil
Crop duration: 1 year.
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Sowing rate: 25-35kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in spring. Broadcast or in close rows.
Field spacing: 20cm between rows x 10-20cm within rows.
Yield: seed 700-900kg/ha, dried forage 2-10t/ha.
Pests: no data
Diseases: no data.
Buyers want: swelling index not less than 6, foreign matter not more than 2-5%, ash not more than 5-6% (seed).
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Feverfew
(Tanacetum parthenium) |
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Market
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Products: (herb);
Market size: 1,300 hectares (world), 160 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume down
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Culture |
Seed density: 7,500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained, dry soil
Crop duration: 1-2 years
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Sowing rate: 1-1.5 kg/ha (direct); 0.5g/1000plants.
Planting: plugs preferred over direct sowing because seeds very small. Sow plugs 8 weeks before spring planting date. Don't allow to go to seed to avoid winterkill. Frequent fertilization with low nitrogen fertilizer is beneficial. Long days trigger flowering. Short lived perennial; some growers treat as annual.
Field spacing: 20-90cm between rows x 10-20cm within rows.
Yield: 300-5000kg/ha (years 1-2).
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: minimum 0.4-0.8% parthenolide.
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Sowing rate: 0.5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow 14-16 weeks before sales in flats or plug trays.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6-8 weeks.
Pests: aphid, whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
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Scented Geranium
(Pelargonium spp. ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (leaf);
Market size: 4,000 hectares (world), 400 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 360-450 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, neutral to alkaline
Crop duration: 1 year temperate areas, 3-5 year in tropical areas.d o Planting: all commercially important varieties are propagated by cuttings. Plugs planted in spring after last frost date. FieldSpacing: 60-100cm between rows x 20-50cm within rows. Yield: fresh leaf 13-30t/ha, oil 13-17kg/ha (years 1-5). PestsDiseases: aphid, caterpillar / alternaria leaf spot.
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Seeds/ |
Planting: all commercially important varieties are propagated by cuttings. Plugs planted in spring after last frost date.
Field spacing: 60-100cm between rows x 20-50cm within rows.
Yield: fresh leaf 13-30t/ha, oil 13-17kg/ha (years 1-5).
Pests: aphid, caterpillar
Diseases: alternaria leaf spot.
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Sowing rate: 30-80g/1000 plants.
Planting: commercial propagation is by cutting only.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6-8 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, geranium and peach aphid, mite, mealybug, scale
Diseases: various leaf spots including xanthomonas, alternaria, botrytis.
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Gingko
(Ginkgo biloba ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (seed);
Market size: 5,000 hectares (world), 600 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 1 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: rich, well-drained, moist soil
Crop duration: 20-50+ years
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Sowing rate: 2-4kg/hectare.
Planting: seeds require stratification, 1-2 months warm, then 1-2 months cold, then sow in spring. Common nursery practice is to sow without stratification in outdoor seed beds in fall. Seedlings shaded for 2-3 years and fertilized with manure. Seedlings transplanted to permanent location when 7-8 years old. Trees kept short (2m) and spaced close (2-3m) in commercial plantations for medicinal leaf production; otherwise allowed to grow higher and spaced further for seed production. Slow growing. Leaves harvested in early fall as they begin to turn yellow; dried in sun. Fruits harvested late fall, seeds cleaned and roasted.
Field spacing: 3-5m apart (2-3m within rows for leaf production).
Yield: no data (leaf years 8-50, seed years 20-50).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: tolerates pollution.
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Sowing rate: 2-4kg/1000 plants.
Planting: stratify seed warm (1-2 months) followed by cold (1-2 months). Sow in deep plugs. Keep lightly shaded.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks to 1 year.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8 weeks (10cm pots), 2-5 years (larger plants).
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Alfalfa
(Medicago sativa ) |
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Market
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Products: (seeds, leaf, herb); (herb, sprouts)
Market size: (excluding acreage planted for fodder): 12,000 hectares (world); 5,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices and acreage up
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Culture |
Seed density: 350 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained; pH 6.0-7.5
Crop duration: 1-4 years
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(herb) |
Sowing rate: 9-13kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring, broadcast or sow in rows, 15-30cm apart. Two or more cuts at bud stage possible; last cut 6 weeks before killing frost. Heavy potash and phosphorus feeder.
Yield: dry herb 8-10,000kg/ha (years 1-4).
Pests: weevil, leafminer, leafhopper, snout beetle
Diseases: verticillium wilt, leafspot, phytophthora root rot.
Buyers want: organic product.
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(sprouts) |
Planting: soak seeds overnight; drain, keep moist. Ready in 3-5 days.
Yield: 4kg(sprouts)/kg(seeds).
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Arnica
(A. montana, A. chamissonis) |
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Market
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Products: (flower, root); (flower);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 160 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume down
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Culture |
Seed density: 700-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, humus-rich, pH 7 (A. chamissonis), pH 4.5-6 (A. montana)
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 1-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing not recommended. Sow in seedflats or plugs. Sow A. montana 16-20 weeks before transplanting to field; sow A. chamissonis 12 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 15-60cm between rows x 15-20cm within rows.
Harvest: flower (years 2-5), root (year 3 or 4).
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: chlorosis (yellow leaves) in A. montana caused by alkaline soil.
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Sowing rate: 8-10g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in seedflats or plugs 20 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8 weeks.
Pests: few problems, whitefly occasionally
Diseases: few problems.
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Lemon Balm
(Melissa officinalis) |
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Market
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Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 75 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 2000 seeds/gram
Exposure: sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained clay or sandy loam, pH 6 to 7.5
Crop duration: 2-4 years
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Sowing rate: 7-9kg/ha (direct), 250-400g/ha (indirect, in plugs).
Planting: sowing in plugs in greenhouse in early spring till mid-summer is most common method; sow 6-8 weeks before transplanting to field. Direct sowing is not as common because weed control is more difficult; sow in early spring or late fall (to come up next spring).
Field spacing: 50-75cm between rows x 18-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry herb 5000kg/ha, fresh herb 10-25t/ha (years 1-3).
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: erisyphe powdery mildew, septoria blight, puccinia rust.
Buyers want: dry carefully to conserve oil in dried herb.
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Sowing rate: 3-5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in flats or plugs 11-14 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spidermite, thrip
Diseases: mildew.
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Basil
(Ocimum basilicum, and others ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf, herb); (herb); (oil);
Market size: 10,000 hectares (world), 1,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 500-1000 (O. gratissimum 2600, O. kilamandscharicum 2800, O. sanctum 1500-2500) seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: rich, well-drained
Crop duration: 1 year (O. basilicum), 1-3 years (others)
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Sowing rate: 20kg/ha (direct); 3-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in spring when nighttime temperatures exceed 10°C; or sow in flats or plugs 8 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 15-25cm within rows.
Yield: fresh herb 15,000kg/ha, dry herb 1,500-2,000kg/ha, oil 30kg/ha (year 1)
Pests: aphids, thrips
Diseases: O. basilicum varieties are highly susceptible to fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum) disease. Disease persists in soil for several years. Commercial field plantings should be sown with fusarium-tolerant Nufar F1. Hydroponic operations may choose fusarium-free varieties if equipment and facilities are free of fusarium (spreads by contaminated seeds and equipment). Other basil species (e.g. O. americanum and O. gratissimum) are fusarium-tolerant.
Buyers want: not less than 0.4% essential oil in dried product.
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Sowing rate: 3-4g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in final pots, or in plugs and later transplant to final pots. Nighttime temperature must not go below 10°C.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, thrips, aphids
Diseases: fusarium (see above).
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Bay Laurel
(Laurus nobilis ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (leaf);
Market size: 2,000 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 1 seeds/gram
Exposure: sheltered position in full or half sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, moist
Crop duration: 20-50 years
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Sowing rate: 30-60kg/ha
Planting: sow stratified seeds in beds or flats.
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: leaves dried flat for visual appearance.
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Sowing rate: 5kg/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or flats in March or April.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks (after stratification).
Plugs to saleable plants: 10 weeks to a year.
Pests: whitefly, scale, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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Borage
(Borago officinalis ) |
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Market
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Products: (seed, herb, flower, root); (herb, flower, root), (seed);
Market size: 5,000 hectares (world); 2,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, acreage up
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Culture |
Seed density: 50 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: best in well-drained, fertile, moist soil, but tolerates most soils, pH 5-8
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 5-17 kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in late spring in rows 45-90cm apart, 30-45cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 300kg/ha; fresh flower 1,000-5,000kg/ha; seed 90-450kg/ha.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: 24% gamma lineolenic acid content in seed oil.
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Sowing rate: 50-80g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots or plugs.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
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Burdock
(Arctium lappa) |
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Market
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Products: (root, leaf); (root);
Market size: 3,000 hectares (world), 170 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 60-110 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or part sun
Soil: deep, loose, humus-rich, pH 6-8
Crop duration: 1-2 years
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Sowing rate: 4 kg/ha (direct), 1.5kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring. Or, sow in beds or plugs and transplant to field in spring. For use as fresh vegetable, dig first year roots when young and tender at 3-5 months. For dry root production, dig in fall of second year.
Field spacing: 45-90cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry root 2,000kg/ha (years 2 or 3).
Pests: few problems, grasshopper
Diseases: few problems.
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Sowing rate: 20g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs 9-10 weeks before sale.
Seeds to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Calendula
(C. officinalis) |
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Market
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Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 880 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 150 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained; can tolerate poor soil with low nitrogen.
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 3-9kg/ha (direct), 1kg/ha (indirect in plugs).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring or autumn; or sow in plugs 4-6 weeks before field planting. Seeds need light to germinate; cover seeds lightly or press in soil only.
Field spacing: 20-70cm between rows x 10-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 1-2,000kg/ha, fresh flower 6-9,000kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: blister-beetle, cabbage-looper, caterpillar, leafhopper
Diseases: leaf spot, aster-yellows.
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Sowing rate: 15g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or direct in pots 10-12 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 4-6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, aphid, thrip, mealybug
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Caraway
(Carum carvi) |
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Market
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Products: (seed); (seed)
Market size: 19,000 hectares (world), 2,500 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 350-400 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, pH 6-7.8.
Crop duration: 1-2 years (depending on variety)
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Sowing rate: 8-11 kg/ha.
Planting: sow standard biennial type direct in field late June or early July; harvest following year in August. Sow annual type in May (suited for warmer regions with 5-6 frost-free months). Sometimes sown with annual cover crops such as coriander, dill, mustard the first year.
Field spacing: 10-50cm between rows x 4-15cm within rows.
Yield: seed 600-3,000kg/ha, oil 4.5-7kg/ha (year 1 or 2, depending on variety).
Pests: leafhopper
Diseases: aster yellows.
Buyers want: seed minimum 3% oil, maximum 12% moisture.
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Catnip
(Nepeta cataria ) |
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Market
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Products: (herb, leaf);
Market size: 2,400 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 1500-1600 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or partial sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, sandy, pH 6.5
Crop duration: 2-5 years
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Sowing rate: 12 kg/ha (direct), 1kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring or late fall. Or, sow in plugs 8-10 weeks before field planting. Seed needs light to germinate; sow shallow 2-4mm deep.
Field spacing: 45-90cm between rows x 30-40cm within rows.
Harvest: leaf, herb (years 2-5).
Yield: dry herb 3-6t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
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Sowing rate: 3g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or seedflats 12-15 weeks before sale. Sow 2-4mm deep.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8-10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3-5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
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Chamomile
(Matricaria recutita, Chamaemelum nobile ) |
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Market
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Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 40,000 hectares (world), 4,800 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 10,000-18,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained, moist to dry
Crop duration: 1 year (M. recutita), 2-3 years (C. nobile)
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Sowing rate: 3-4 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect)
Planting: german (M. recutita) is sown direct in field in spring or fall. Fall sowings germinate following spring. Roman (C. nobile) is sown direct or indirect in plugs which are later planted in field. Surface sow only (needs light to germinate). Hand harvesting flowers problematic in areas where labour cost is high; mechanical harvesting still unproven.
Field spacing: 10-50cm between rows x 10-25cm within rows, or broadcast sown.
Yield: dry flower 350-500kg/ha (M. recutita; year 1), 600-1000 kg/ha (C. nobile; years 1-3).
Pests: cnephasia moth
Diseases: aster yellows.
Buyers want: 0.4% or more volatile oil.
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Sowing rate: 1g/1000plants.
Planting: german (M. recutita) not normally sold in pots; roman (C. nobile) and its varieties are sold in pots or plugs. Seeds need light to germinate; surface sow only.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4-6 weeks.
Pests: aphid, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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Chives
(Allium schoenoprasum, A. tuberosum ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf, flower); (leaf, flower);
Market size: 24,000 hectares (world), 3,200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 750 (A. schoenoprasum), 200-300 (A. tuberosum) seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, humus-rich
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 2-3 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring, or sow indirect in plugs 12-16 weeks before field planting. Field must be free of quackgrass otherwise harvests will be contaminated.
Field spacing: 30cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: fresh leaf 10-20t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: aphid
Diseases: puccinia rust, downy mildew.
Buyers want: good green colour (dry leaf).
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Sowing rate: 5-20g/1000plants (A. schoenoprasum), 50g/1000plants (A. tuberosum)
Planting: sow 10-15 seeds per plug or pot, or sow same amount direct in pots.
Seeds to saleable plants: 24-30 weeks.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12-16 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 11 weeks.
Pests: aphid, thrip
Diseases: few problems.
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Comfrey
(Symphytum officinale, S. x uplandicum) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf, root); (root, herb);
Market size: 1,700 hectares (world), 240 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 90-100 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or part sun
Soil: moist, wet or dry
Crop duration: 2-5 years
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Sowing rate: 600-900g/ha (indirect).
Planting: although seed can be sown direct, the high cost of seed dictates indirect sowing in plugs or seedbed and transplanting to field. Root cuttings (12,000/ha) of named cultivars (e.g. Bocking No. 14) recommended over seed.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 90cm within rows.
Yield: dry leaf 12t/ha (years 2-5), dry root 1,800kg/ha (year 3, 4 or 5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: comfrey rust.
Buyers want: low pyrrolizidine alkaloid content, particularly echimidine; leaf should be cut early to avoid alkaloid buildup.
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Sowing rate: 50-70g/1000plants.
Planting: sow S. officinale in plugs or seedflats 12-14 weeks before sale. S. x uplandicum and ornamental varieties are propagated by division or root cutting.
Seeds to saleable plants: 12 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, aphid
Diseases: comfrey rust.
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Coriander, Cilantro
(Coriandrum sativum) |
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Market
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Products: (seed); (herb); (seed, herb);
Market size: 600,000 hectares (world), 5,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 110-150 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun (seed), full or half sun (fresh herb)
Soil: deep, fertile, light or heavy, well-drained, pH 6.5-7.5
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 25 kg/ha (seed), 80 kg/ha (fresh herb).
Planting: for seed and seed oil production, sow direct in spring. For fresh herb (cilantro) and herb oil production sow early spring and fall; will bolt in hot weather.
Field spacing: 50-60cm between rows x 11-13cm between plants (seed), 20-25cm between rows x 8-10cm (fresh herb).
Yield: seed 900-1,500kg/ha, fresh herb 10-12t/ha, oil 1-9kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: thrip
Diseases: asters yellow, erysiphe powdery mildew, puccinia rust, pseudamonas, and sclerotina.
Buyers want: less than 12% moisture.
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Sowing rate: 200g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots; do not transplant – root disturbance causes plants to bolt early.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: aphid, thrip, mite, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Dandelion
(Taraxacum officinale) |
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Market
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Products: (root, herb); (leaf)
Market size: 7,000 hectares (world); 500 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 1200-1900 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: most soils
Crop duration: 2 years (root), 1-4 years (fresh leaf)
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Sowing rate: 1-3kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring or late summer. Fresh leaf gathered as vegetable spring, summer and fall. Herb for drying harvested spring or summer. Roots dug late fall.
Field spacing: 45cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: dry root 1100-1700kg/ha (year 2).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: water-soluble extractive not less than 30%.
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Dill
(Anethum graveolens, A. sowa ) |
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Market
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Products: (seed, herb); (leaf); (leaf, seed);
Market size: 37,000 hectares (world), 4,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices same, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 400-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, moderately rich, loose soil, pH 5.5-6.5
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 9-12 kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in spring.
Field spacing: 25-50cm between rows; thin to 10cm within rows for fresh herb production or 2-3cm within rows for seed production.
Yield: seed 600-900kg/ha, fresh herb 2500-5000kg/ha, dried herb 1000kg/ha, oil 50-110kg/ha.
Pests: aphid, tarnished plant bug
Diseases: powdery mildew, leafspot, aster yellows.
Buyers want: good green colour (dried leaf).
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Sowing rate: 15-40g/1000pots.
Planting: do not transplant; sow direct in pots, 8-20 seeds per pot.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: aphid
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Echinacea
(Echinacea purpurea, E. angustifolia, E. pallida ) |
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Market
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Products: (root, herb, flower, seed); (herb);
Market size: 16,000 hectares (world), 4,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices down, acreage up; market for E. purpurea herb is weak.
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Culture |
Seed density: 160-500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained, pH 6-7.5
Crop duration: 3-4 years
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Sowing rate: 14-18 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: E. purpurea seeds do not require pretreatment. Can be started in plugs and transplanted to the field, which is the preferred method, or can be sown direct in the field. Sow E. purpurea 100-120 days before field planting; sow E. angustifolia and E. pallida 150 days before planting. E. angustifolia and E. pallida germination benefits from pretreatment; stratify at 5°C for 4-12 weeks with light. Pretreatment with Ethrel (1 millimolar for 2 weeks), or with bleach (1% for 10 min.) improves E. angustifolia germination.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 20-45cm within rows.
Yield: E. purpurea herb 6,500-11,000kg/ha (years 2-4); E. purpurea root 1000kg/ha (year 4); E. angustifolia root 1100kg/ha (year 4); no data for E. pallida root.
Pests: leafhopper
Diseases: aster yellows (spread by leafhoppers), sclerotinia stem and root rot, botrytis.
Buyers want: certificate of botanical identity required for E. angustifolia; echinacoside 1.4% (roots).
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Sowing rate: 10g/1000plants.
Planting: sow 14 weeks (E. purpurea) to 22 weeks (E. angustifolia, E. pallida) before sale. Stratify or pretreat E. angustifolia and E. pallida seed before sowing (see above).
Seeds to finished plugs: 8-12 weeks (after pretreatment).
Plugs to saleable plants: 6-10 weeks.
Pests: few problems, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Elecampane
(Inula helenium ) |
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Market
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Products: (root); (root);
Market size: 800 hectares (world), 25 ha (North America).
Prospects: prices same, volume same
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Culture |
Seed density: 600-800 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: moist, deep, well-drained
Crop duration: 2 years.
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Sowing rate: 400-600g/ha (direct); 5g/1000plants (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing not recommended. Start in plugs 8 weeks before spring or late summer field planting.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 45cm within rows.
Yield: 2500kg/ha (year 2).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: erysiphe powdery mildew (late summer), ramularia leafspot, puccinia rust.
Buyers want: not less than 1.8% volatile oil, not more than 6-8% ash, not less than 27% water-soluble extractive, not more than 2% foreign matter.
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Sowing rate: 5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs, seedflats or seed beds. Germination in 4-7 days.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 2-6 weeks.
Pests: spider mite, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Fennel
(Foeniculum vulgare) |
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Market
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Products: (seed); (leaf, bulb); (herb);
Market size: 70,000 hectares (world), 7,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 200-300 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, deep, moderately fertile, pH 7-8.
Crop duration: 2-3 years (florence fennel, 1 year)
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Sowing rate: 4-6kg/ha (direct), 30g/1000plants (indirect).
Planting: sow sweet fennel direct; bronze direct or indirect; florence indirect.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: seed 1000-1600kg/ha (years 2-3), fresh herb 8-10t/ha (year 1-3), dried herb 1.5-2.5t/ha (year 1-3), seed oil 40-75kg/ha.
Pests: aphid, lygus tarnished plant bug
Diseases: sclerotinia stemrot, rhizoctonia damping-off, erwinia soft rot.
Buyers want: not less than 2-4% volatile oil.
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Sowing rate: 30g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots or in plugs. Does not transplant well; best to sow direct.
Seeds to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3 weeks.
Pests: aphid
Diseases: damping-off.
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Fenugreek
(Trigonella foenum-graecum) |
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Market
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Products: (seeds, leaf, herb); (herb, sprouts); (seed)
Market size: 90,000 hectares (world), 7,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 100 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, warm soil
Crop duration: 1 year.
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Sowing rate: 25-35kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in spring. Broadcast or in close rows.
Field spacing: 20cm between rows x 10-20cm within rows.
Yield: seed 700-900kg/ha, dried forage 2-10t/ha.
Pests: no data
Diseases: no data.
Buyers want: swelling index not less than 6, foreign matter not more than 2-5%, ash not more than 5-6% (seed).
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Feverfew
(Tanacetum parthenium) |
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Market
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Products: (herb);
Market size: 1,300 hectares (world), 160 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume down
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Culture |
Seed density: 7,500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained, dry soil
Crop duration: 1-2 years
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Sowing rate: 1-1.5 kg/ha (direct); 0.5g/1000plants.
Planting: plugs preferred over direct sowing because seeds very small. Sow plugs 8 weeks before spring planting date. Don't allow to go to seed to avoid winterkill. Frequent fertilization with low nitrogen fertilizer is beneficial. Long days trigger flowering. Short lived perennial; some growers treat as annual.
Field spacing: 20-90cm between rows x 10-20cm within rows.
Yield: 300-5000kg/ha (years 1-2).
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: minimum 0.4-0.8% parthenolide.
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Sowing rate: 0.5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow 14-16 weeks before sales in flats or plug trays.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6-8 weeks.
Pests: aphid, whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
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Scented Geranium
(Pelargonium spp. ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (leaf);
Market size: 4,000 hectares (world), 400 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 360-450 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, neutral to alkaline
Crop duration: 1 year temperate areas, 3-5 year in tropical areas.d o Planting: all commercially important varieties are propagated by cuttings. Plugs planted in spring after last frost date. FieldSpacing: 60-100cm between rows x 20-50cm within rows. Yield: fresh leaf 13-30t/ha, oil 13-17kg/ha (years 1-5). PestsDiseases: aphid, caterpillar / alternaria leaf spot.
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Seeds/ |
Planting: all commercially important varieties are propagated by cuttings. Plugs planted in spring after last frost date.
Field spacing: 60-100cm between rows x 20-50cm within rows.
Yield: fresh leaf 13-30t/ha, oil 13-17kg/ha (years 1-5).
Pests: aphid, caterpillar
Diseases: alternaria leaf spot.
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Sowing rate: 30-80g/1000 plants.
Planting: commercial propagation is by cutting only.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6-8 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, geranium and peach aphid, mite, mealybug, scale
Diseases: various leaf spots including xanthomonas, alternaria, botrytis.
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Gingko
(Ginkgo biloba ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (seed);
Market size: 5,000 hectares (world), 600 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 1 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: rich, well-drained, moist soil
Crop duration: 20-50+ years
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Sowing rate: 2-4kg/hectare.
Planting: seeds require stratification, 1-2 months warm, then 1-2 months cold, then sow in spring. Common nursery practice is to sow without stratification in outdoor seed beds in fall. Seedlings shaded for 2-3 years and fertilized with manure. Seedlings transplanted to permanent location when 7-8 years old. Trees kept short (2m) and spaced close (2-3m) in commercial plantations for medicinal leaf production; otherwise allowed to grow higher and spaced further for seed production. Slow growing. Leaves harvested in early fall as they begin to turn yellow; dried in sun. Fruits harvested late fall, seeds cleaned and roasted.
Field spacing: 3-5m apart (2-3m within rows for leaf production).
Yield: no data (leaf years 8-50, seed years 20-50).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: tolerates pollution.
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Sowing rate: 2-4kg/1000 plants.
Planting: stratify seed warm (1-2 months) followed by cold (1-2 months). Sow in deep plugs. Keep lightly shaded.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks to 1 year.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8 weeks (10cm pots), 2-5 years (larger plants).
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Ginseng
(Panax quinquefolius, P. ginseng; Eleutherococcus senticosus) |
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Market
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Products: (root)
Market size: Panax 70,000 hectares (world), 7,400 ha (North America)
Prospects: Panax prices down, volume up. Prospects for woodsgrown Panax much better than shadecloth grown.
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Culture |
Seed density: Panax 15; Eleutherococcus 100 seeds/gram
Exposure: Panax 70% shade; Eleutherococcus 30-50% shade
Soil: well-drained, sandy or clay loam, in raised beds, pH 5.5-6.0
Crop duration: Panax 3-4 years (shadecloth), 4-8 years (woodsgrown); Eleutherococcus 6-12 years
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Sowing rate: 40-100 kg/ha (shadecloth), 10-20 kg/ha (woodsgrown).
Planting: Panax seeds stratified one year. Sow stratified seeds in seedbeds and transplant seedlings to raised beds in years 1-2, or sow direct in raised beds. Mulch with straw. Remove shadecloth over winter. Eleutherococcus seeds need at least cycles of warm-cold stratification; best results obtained when sown in flats in fall and left out over winter under mulch.
Field spacing: Panax 15-20cm between rows x 15-20cm within rows, further apart in woodsgrown plantings; Eleutherococcus 60-100cm apart.
Yield: Panax (shadecloth) 3400kg/ha (years 3-4).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: Panax alternaria leaf blight, rhizoctonia wilt, phytophthora, powdery mildew; Eleutherococcus few problems.
Buyers want: ginsenosides not less than 1.5-2%, ash not more than 4-8%.
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Sowing rate: Panax 150g/1000 plants; Eleutherococcus 250g/1000plants.
Planting: sow stratified Panax seeds in deep plugs, 2-4 seeds per plug, or sow in seed flats. Provide shade, keep cool and well ventilated.
Seeds to finished plugs: Panax 6 months (after stratification).
Plugs to saleable plants: Panax 1 year.
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: Panax alternaria, rhizoctonia.
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Alfalfa
(Medicago sativa ) |
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Market
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Products: (seeds, leaf, herb); (herb, sprouts)
Market size: (excluding acreage planted for fodder): 12,000 hectares (world); 5,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices and acreage up
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Culture |
Seed density: 350 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained; pH 6.0-7.5
Crop duration: 1-4 years
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(herb) |
Sowing rate: 9-13kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring, broadcast or sow in rows, 15-30cm apart. Two or more cuts at bud stage possible; last cut 6 weeks before killing frost. Heavy potash and phosphorus feeder.
Yield: dry herb 8-10,000kg/ha (years 1-4).
Pests: weevil, leafminer, leafhopper, snout beetle
Diseases: verticillium wilt, leafspot, phytophthora root rot.
Buyers want: organic product.
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(sprouts) |
Planting: soak seeds overnight; drain, keep moist. Ready in 3-5 days.
Yield: 4kg(sprouts)/kg(seeds).
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Arnica
(A. montana, A. chamissonis) |
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Market
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Products: (flower, root); (flower);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 160 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume down
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Culture |
Seed density: 700-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, humus-rich, pH 7 (A. chamissonis), pH 4.5-6 (A. montana)
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 1-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing not recommended. Sow in seedflats or plugs. Sow A. montana 16-20 weeks before transplanting to field; sow A. chamissonis 12 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 15-60cm between rows x 15-20cm within rows.
Harvest: flower (years 2-5), root (year 3 or 4).
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: chlorosis (yellow leaves) in A. montana caused by alkaline soil.
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Sowing rate: 8-10g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in seedflats or plugs 20 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8 weeks.
Pests: few problems, whitefly occasionally
Diseases: few problems.
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Lemon Balm
(Melissa officinalis) |
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Market
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Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 75 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 2000 seeds/gram
Exposure: sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained clay or sandy loam, pH 6 to 7.5
Crop duration: 2-4 years
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Sowing rate: 7-9kg/ha (direct), 250-400g/ha (indirect, in plugs).
Planting: sowing in plugs in greenhouse in early spring till mid-summer is most common method; sow 6-8 weeks before transplanting to field. Direct sowing is not as common because weed control is more difficult; sow in early spring or late fall (to come up next spring).
Field spacing: 50-75cm between rows x 18-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry herb 5000kg/ha, fresh herb 10-25t/ha (years 1-3).
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: erisyphe powdery mildew, septoria blight, puccinia rust.
Buyers want: dry carefully to conserve oil in dried herb.
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Sowing rate: 3-5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in flats or plugs 11-14 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spidermite, thrip
Diseases: mildew.
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Basil
(Ocimum basilicum, and others ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf, herb); (herb); (oil);
Market size: 10,000 hectares (world), 1,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 500-1000 (O. gratissimum 2600, O. kilamandscharicum 2800, O. sanctum 1500-2500) seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: rich, well-drained
Crop duration: 1 year (O. basilicum), 1-3 years (others)
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Sowing rate: 20kg/ha (direct); 3-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in spring when nighttime temperatures exceed 10°C; or sow in flats or plugs 8 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 15-25cm within rows.
Yield: fresh herb 15,000kg/ha, dry herb 1,500-2,000kg/ha, oil 30kg/ha (year 1)
Pests: aphids, thrips
Diseases: O. basilicum varieties are highly susceptible to fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum) disease. Disease persists in soil for several years. Commercial field plantings should be sown with fusarium-tolerant Nufar F1. Hydroponic operations may choose fusarium-free varieties if equipment and facilities are free of fusarium (spreads by contaminated seeds and equipment). Other basil species (e.g. O. americanum and O. gratissimum) are fusarium-tolerant.
Buyers want: not less than 0.4% essential oil in dried product.
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Sowing rate: 3-4g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in final pots, or in plugs and later transplant to final pots. Nighttime temperature must not go below 10°C.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, thrips, aphids
Diseases: fusarium (see above).
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Bay Laurel
(Laurus nobilis ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (leaf);
Market size: 2,000 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 1 seeds/gram
Exposure: sheltered position in full or half sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, moist
Crop duration: 20-50 years
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Sowing rate: 30-60kg/ha
Planting: sow stratified seeds in beds or flats.
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: leaves dried flat for visual appearance.
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Sowing rate: 5kg/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or flats in March or April.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks (after stratification).
Plugs to saleable plants: 10 weeks to a year.
Pests: whitefly, scale, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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Borage
(Borago officinalis ) |
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Market
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Products: (seed, herb, flower, root); (herb, flower, root), (seed);
Market size: 5,000 hectares (world); 2,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, acreage up
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Culture |
Seed density: 50 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: best in well-drained, fertile, moist soil, but tolerates most soils, pH 5-8
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 5-17 kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in late spring in rows 45-90cm apart, 30-45cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 300kg/ha; fresh flower 1,000-5,000kg/ha; seed 90-450kg/ha.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: 24% gamma lineolenic acid content in seed oil.
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Sowing rate: 50-80g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots or plugs.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
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Burdock
(Arctium lappa) |
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Market
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Products: (root, leaf); (root);
Market size: 3,000 hectares (world), 170 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 60-110 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or part sun
Soil: deep, loose, humus-rich, pH 6-8
Crop duration: 1-2 years
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Sowing rate: 4 kg/ha (direct), 1.5kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring. Or, sow in beds or plugs and transplant to field in spring. For use as fresh vegetable, dig first year roots when young and tender at 3-5 months. For dry root production, dig in fall of second year.
Field spacing: 45-90cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry root 2,000kg/ha (years 2 or 3).
Pests: few problems, grasshopper
Diseases: few problems.
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Sowing rate: 20g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs 9-10 weeks before sale.
Seeds to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Calendula
(C. officinalis) |
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Market
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Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 880 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 150 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained; can tolerate poor soil with low nitrogen.
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 3-9kg/ha (direct), 1kg/ha (indirect in plugs).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring or autumn; or sow in plugs 4-6 weeks before field planting. Seeds need light to germinate; cover seeds lightly or press in soil only.
Field spacing: 20-70cm between rows x 10-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 1-2,000kg/ha, fresh flower 6-9,000kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: blister-beetle, cabbage-looper, caterpillar, leafhopper
Diseases: leaf spot, aster-yellows.
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Sowing rate: 15g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or direct in pots 10-12 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 4-6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, aphid, thrip, mealybug
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Caraway
(Carum carvi) |
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Market
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Products: (seed); (seed)
Market size: 19,000 hectares (world), 2,500 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 350-400 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, pH 6-7.8.
Crop duration: 1-2 years (depending on variety)
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Sowing rate: 8-11 kg/ha.
Planting: sow standard biennial type direct in field late June or early July; harvest following year in August. Sow annual type in May (suited for warmer regions with 5-6 frost-free months). Sometimes sown with annual cover crops such as coriander, dill, mustard the first year.
Field spacing: 10-50cm between rows x 4-15cm within rows.
Yield: seed 600-3,000kg/ha, oil 4.5-7kg/ha (year 1 or 2, depending on variety).
Pests: leafhopper
Diseases: aster yellows.
Buyers want: seed minimum 3% oil, maximum 12% moisture.
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Catnip
(Nepeta cataria ) |
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Market
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Products: (herb, leaf);
Market size: 2,400 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 1500-1600 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or partial sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, sandy, pH 6.5
Crop duration: 2-5 years
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Sowing rate: 12 kg/ha (direct), 1kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring or late fall. Or, sow in plugs 8-10 weeks before field planting. Seed needs light to germinate; sow shallow 2-4mm deep.
Field spacing: 45-90cm between rows x 30-40cm within rows.
Harvest: leaf, herb (years 2-5).
Yield: dry herb 3-6t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
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Sowing rate: 3g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or seedflats 12-15 weeks before sale. Sow 2-4mm deep.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8-10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3-5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
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Chamomile
(Matricaria recutita, Chamaemelum nobile ) |
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Market
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Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 40,000 hectares (world), 4,800 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 10,000-18,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained, moist to dry
Crop duration: 1 year (M. recutita), 2-3 years (C. nobile)
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Sowing rate: 3-4 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect)
Planting: german (M. recutita) is sown direct in field in spring or fall. Fall sowings germinate following spring. Roman (C. nobile) is sown direct or indirect in plugs which are later planted in field. Surface sow only (needs light to germinate). Hand harvesting flowers problematic in areas where labour cost is high; mechanical harvesting still unproven.
Field spacing: 10-50cm between rows x 10-25cm within rows, or broadcast sown.
Yield: dry flower 350-500kg/ha (M. recutita; year 1), 600-1000 kg/ha (C. nobile; years 1-3).
Pests: cnephasia moth
Diseases: aster yellows.
Buyers want: 0.4% or more volatile oil.
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Sowing rate: 1g/1000plants.
Planting: german (M. recutita) not normally sold in pots; roman (C. nobile) and its varieties are sold in pots or plugs. Seeds need light to germinate; surface sow only.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4-6 weeks.
Pests: aphid, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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Chives
(Allium schoenoprasum, A. tuberosum ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf, flower); (leaf, flower);
Market size: 24,000 hectares (world), 3,200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 750 (A. schoenoprasum), 200-300 (A. tuberosum) seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, humus-rich
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 2-3 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring, or sow indirect in plugs 12-16 weeks before field planting. Field must be free of quackgrass otherwise harvests will be contaminated.
Field spacing: 30cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: fresh leaf 10-20t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: aphid
Diseases: puccinia rust, downy mildew.
Buyers want: good green colour (dry leaf).
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Sowing rate: 5-20g/1000plants (A. schoenoprasum), 50g/1000plants (A. tuberosum)
Planting: sow 10-15 seeds per plug or pot, or sow same amount direct in pots.
Seeds to saleable plants: 24-30 weeks.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12-16 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 11 weeks.
Pests: aphid, thrip
Diseases: few problems.
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Comfrey
(Symphytum officinale, S. x uplandicum) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf, root); (root, herb);
Market size: 1,700 hectares (world), 240 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 90-100 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or part sun
Soil: moist, wet or dry
Crop duration: 2-5 years
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Sowing rate: 600-900g/ha (indirect).
Planting: although seed can be sown direct, the high cost of seed dictates indirect sowing in plugs or seedbed and transplanting to field. Root cuttings (12,000/ha) of named cultivars (e.g. Bocking No. 14) recommended over seed.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 90cm within rows.
Yield: dry leaf 12t/ha (years 2-5), dry root 1,800kg/ha (year 3, 4 or 5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: comfrey rust.
Buyers want: low pyrrolizidine alkaloid content, particularly echimidine; leaf should be cut early to avoid alkaloid buildup.
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Sowing rate: 50-70g/1000plants.
Planting: sow S. officinale in plugs or seedflats 12-14 weeks before sale. S. x uplandicum and ornamental varieties are propagated by division or root cutting.
Seeds to saleable plants: 12 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, aphid
Diseases: comfrey rust.
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Coriander, Cilantro
(Coriandrum sativum) |
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Market
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Products: (seed); (herb); (seed, herb);
Market size: 600,000 hectares (world), 5,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 110-150 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun (seed), full or half sun (fresh herb)
Soil: deep, fertile, light or heavy, well-drained, pH 6.5-7.5
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 25 kg/ha (seed), 80 kg/ha (fresh herb).
Planting: for seed and seed oil production, sow direct in spring. For fresh herb (cilantro) and herb oil production sow early spring and fall; will bolt in hot weather.
Field spacing: 50-60cm between rows x 11-13cm between plants (seed), 20-25cm between rows x 8-10cm (fresh herb).
Yield: seed 900-1,500kg/ha, fresh herb 10-12t/ha, oil 1-9kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: thrip
Diseases: asters yellow, erysiphe powdery mildew, puccinia rust, pseudamonas, and sclerotina.
Buyers want: less than 12% moisture.
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Sowing rate: 200g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots; do not transplant – root disturbance causes plants to bolt early.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: aphid, thrip, mite, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Dandelion
(Taraxacum officinale) |
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Market
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Products: (root, herb); (leaf)
Market size: 7,000 hectares (world); 500 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 1200-1900 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: most soils
Crop duration: 2 years (root), 1-4 years (fresh leaf)
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Sowing rate: 1-3kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring or late summer. Fresh leaf gathered as vegetable spring, summer and fall. Herb for drying harvested spring or summer. Roots dug late fall.
Field spacing: 45cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: dry root 1100-1700kg/ha (year 2).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: water-soluble extractive not less than 30%.
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Dill
(Anethum graveolens, A. sowa ) |
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Market
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Products: (seed, herb); (leaf); (leaf, seed);
Market size: 37,000 hectares (world), 4,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices same, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 400-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, moderately rich, loose soil, pH 5.5-6.5
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 9-12 kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in spring.
Field spacing: 25-50cm between rows; thin to 10cm within rows for fresh herb production or 2-3cm within rows for seed production.
Yield: seed 600-900kg/ha, fresh herb 2500-5000kg/ha, dried herb 1000kg/ha, oil 50-110kg/ha.
Pests: aphid, tarnished plant bug
Diseases: powdery mildew, leafspot, aster yellows.
Buyers want: good green colour (dried leaf).
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Sowing rate: 15-40g/1000pots.
Planting: do not transplant; sow direct in pots, 8-20 seeds per pot.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: aphid
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Echinacea
(Echinacea purpurea, E. angustifolia, E. pallida ) |
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Market
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Products: (root, herb, flower, seed); (herb);
Market size: 16,000 hectares (world), 4,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices down, acreage up; market for E. purpurea herb is weak.
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Culture |
Seed density: 160-500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained, pH 6-7.5
Crop duration: 3-4 years
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Sowing rate: 14-18 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: E. purpurea seeds do not require pretreatment. Can be started in plugs and transplanted to the field, which is the preferred method, or can be sown direct in the field. Sow E. purpurea 100-120 days before field planting; sow E. angustifolia and E. pallida 150 days before planting. E. angustifolia and E. pallida germination benefits from pretreatment; stratify at 5°C for 4-12 weeks with light. Pretreatment with Ethrel (1 millimolar for 2 weeks), or with bleach (1% for 10 min.) improves E. angustifolia germination.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 20-45cm within rows.
Yield: E. purpurea herb 6,500-11,000kg/ha (years 2-4); E. purpurea root 1000kg/ha (year 4); E. angustifolia root 1100kg/ha (year 4); no data for E. pallida root.
Pests: leafhopper
Diseases: aster yellows (spread by leafhoppers), sclerotinia stem and root rot, botrytis.
Buyers want: certificate of botanical identity required for E. angustifolia; echinacoside 1.4% (roots).
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Sowing rate: 10g/1000plants.
Planting: sow 14 weeks (E. purpurea) to 22 weeks (E. angustifolia, E. pallida) before sale. Stratify or pretreat E. angustifolia and E. pallida seed before sowing (see above).
Seeds to finished plugs: 8-12 weeks (after pretreatment).
Plugs to saleable plants: 6-10 weeks.
Pests: few problems, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Elecampane
(Inula helenium ) |
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Market
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Products: (root); (root);
Market size: 800 hectares (world), 25 ha (North America).
Prospects: prices same, volume same
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Culture |
Seed density: 600-800 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: moist, deep, well-drained
Crop duration: 2 years.
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Sowing rate: 400-600g/ha (direct); 5g/1000plants (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing not recommended. Start in plugs 8 weeks before spring or late summer field planting.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 45cm within rows.
Yield: 2500kg/ha (year 2).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: erysiphe powdery mildew (late summer), ramularia leafspot, puccinia rust.
Buyers want: not less than 1.8% volatile oil, not more than 6-8% ash, not less than 27% water-soluble extractive, not more than 2% foreign matter.
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Sowing rate: 5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs, seedflats or seed beds. Germination in 4-7 days.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 2-6 weeks.
Pests: spider mite, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Fennel
(Foeniculum vulgare) |
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Market
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Products: (seed); (leaf, bulb); (herb);
Market size: 70,000 hectares (world), 7,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 200-300 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, deep, moderately fertile, pH 7-8.
Crop duration: 2-3 years (florence fennel, 1 year)
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Sowing rate: 4-6kg/ha (direct), 30g/1000plants (indirect).
Planting: sow sweet fennel direct; bronze direct or indirect; florence indirect.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: seed 1000-1600kg/ha (years 2-3), fresh herb 8-10t/ha (year 1-3), dried herb 1.5-2.5t/ha (year 1-3), seed oil 40-75kg/ha.
Pests: aphid, lygus tarnished plant bug
Diseases: sclerotinia stemrot, rhizoctonia damping-off, erwinia soft rot.
Buyers want: not less than 2-4% volatile oil.
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Sowing rate: 30g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots or in plugs. Does not transplant well; best to sow direct.
Seeds to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3 weeks.
Pests: aphid
Diseases: damping-off.
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Fenugreek
(Trigonella foenum-graecum) |
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Market
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Products: (seeds, leaf, herb); (herb, sprouts); (seed)
Market size: 90,000 hectares (world), 7,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 100 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, warm soil
Crop duration: 1 year.
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Sowing rate: 25-35kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in spring. Broadcast or in close rows.
Field spacing: 20cm between rows x 10-20cm within rows.
Yield: seed 700-900kg/ha, dried forage 2-10t/ha.
Pests: no data
Diseases: no data.
Buyers want: swelling index not less than 6, foreign matter not more than 2-5%, ash not more than 5-6% (seed).
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Feverfew
(Tanacetum parthenium) |
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Market
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Products: (herb);
Market size: 1,300 hectares (world), 160 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume down
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Culture |
Seed density: 7,500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained, dry soil
Crop duration: 1-2 years
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Sowing rate: 1-1.5 kg/ha (direct); 0.5g/1000plants.
Planting: plugs preferred over direct sowing because seeds very small. Sow plugs 8 weeks before spring planting date. Don't allow to go to seed to avoid winterkill. Frequent fertilization with low nitrogen fertilizer is beneficial. Long days trigger flowering. Short lived perennial; some growers treat as annual.
Field spacing: 20-90cm between rows x 10-20cm within rows.
Yield: 300-5000kg/ha (years 1-2).
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: minimum 0.4-0.8% parthenolide.
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Sowing rate: 0.5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow 14-16 weeks before sales in flats or plug trays.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6-8 weeks.
Pests: aphid, whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
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Scented Geranium
(Pelargonium spp. ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (leaf);
Market size: 4,000 hectares (world), 400 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 360-450 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, neutral to alkaline
Crop duration: 1 year temperate areas, 3-5 year in tropical areas.d o Planting: all commercially important varieties are propagated by cuttings. Plugs planted in spring after last frost date. FieldSpacing: 60-100cm between rows x 20-50cm within rows. Yield: fresh leaf 13-30t/ha, oil 13-17kg/ha (years 1-5). PestsDiseases: aphid, caterpillar / alternaria leaf spot.
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Seeds/ |
Planting: all commercially important varieties are propagated by cuttings. Plugs planted in spring after last frost date.
Field spacing: 60-100cm between rows x 20-50cm within rows.
Yield: fresh leaf 13-30t/ha, oil 13-17kg/ha (years 1-5).
Pests: aphid, caterpillar
Diseases: alternaria leaf spot.
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Sowing rate: 30-80g/1000 plants.
Planting: commercial propagation is by cutting only.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6-8 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, geranium and peach aphid, mite, mealybug, scale
Diseases: various leaf spots including xanthomonas, alternaria, botrytis.
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Gingko
(Ginkgo biloba ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (seed);
Market size: 5,000 hectares (world), 600 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 1 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: rich, well-drained, moist soil
Crop duration: 20-50+ years
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Sowing rate: 2-4kg/hectare.
Planting: seeds require stratification, 1-2 months warm, then 1-2 months cold, then sow in spring. Common nursery practice is to sow without stratification in outdoor seed beds in fall. Seedlings shaded for 2-3 years and fertilized with manure. Seedlings transplanted to permanent location when 7-8 years old. Trees kept short (2m) and spaced close (2-3m) in commercial plantations for medicinal leaf production; otherwise allowed to grow higher and spaced further for seed production. Slow growing. Leaves harvested in early fall as they begin to turn yellow; dried in sun. Fruits harvested late fall, seeds cleaned and roasted.
Field spacing: 3-5m apart (2-3m within rows for leaf production).
Yield: no data (leaf years 8-50, seed years 20-50).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: tolerates pollution.
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Sowing rate: 2-4kg/1000 plants.
Planting: stratify seed warm (1-2 months) followed by cold (1-2 months). Sow in deep plugs. Keep lightly shaded.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks to 1 year.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8 weeks (10cm pots), 2-5 years (larger plants).
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Ginseng
(Panax quinquefolius, P. ginseng; Eleutherococcus senticosus) |
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Market
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Products: (root)
Market size: Panax 70,000 hectares (world), 7,400 ha (North America)
Prospects: Panax prices down, volume up. Prospects for woodsgrown Panax much better than shadecloth grown.
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Culture |
Seed density: Panax 15; Eleutherococcus 100 seeds/gram
Exposure: Panax 70% shade; Eleutherococcus 30-50% shade
Soil: well-drained, sandy or clay loam, in raised beds, pH 5.5-6.0
Crop duration: Panax 3-4 years (shadecloth), 4-8 years (woodsgrown); Eleutherococcus 6-12 years
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Sowing rate: 40-100 kg/ha (shadecloth), 10-20 kg/ha (woodsgrown).
Planting: Panax seeds stratified one year. Sow stratified seeds in seedbeds and transplant seedlings to raised beds in years 1-2, or sow direct in raised beds. Mulch with straw. Remove shadecloth over winter. Eleutherococcus seeds need at least cycles of warm-cold stratification; best results obtained when sown in flats in fall and left out over winter under mulch.
Field spacing: Panax 15-20cm between rows x 15-20cm within rows, further apart in woodsgrown plantings; Eleutherococcus 60-100cm apart.
Yield: Panax (shadecloth) 3400kg/ha (years 3-4).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: Panax alternaria leaf blight, rhizoctonia wilt, phytophthora, powdery mildew; Eleutherococcus few problems.
Buyers want: ginsenosides not less than 1.5-2%, ash not more than 4-8%.
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Sowing rate: Panax 150g/1000 plants; Eleutherococcus 250g/1000plants.
Planting: sow stratified Panax seeds in deep plugs, 2-4 seeds per plug, or sow in seed flats. Provide shade, keep cool and well ventilated.
Seeds to finished plugs: Panax 6 months (after stratification).
Plugs to saleable plants: Panax 1 year.
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: Panax alternaria, rhizoctonia.
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Goldenseal
(Hydrastis canadensis) |
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Market
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Products: (root);
Market size: 17,000 hectares (world), 7,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices down, volume up. Majority of market supplied by wildcrafted material, but wild stocks are becoming depleted and now listed on CITES.
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Culture |
Seed density: 50-55 seeds/gram
Exposure: 50-75% Shade
Soil: well-drained, deep, fertile soil, pH 5.5-6.5, in raised beds or on gentle slope.
Crop duration: 3-6 years
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Sowing rate: 10kg/ha (direct), 100g/1000 plants (indirect); rootlets 100,000/ha.
Planting: growers prefer rootlets over seeds because they are more reliable and quicker to harvestable size (3 years); however, seed quality has improved recently and cost of seeds is much less than rootlets. Seeds take 5-6 years to get harvestable roots. Seeds must not dry out; must be sown immediately after harvest in late summer to come up following spring. Avoid straw mulch and fertilize lightly.
Field spacing: 15-40cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: 900-2300kg/ha (year 3-6).
Pests: slugs
Diseases: alternaria, phytophthora, rhizoctonia, botrytis leafspot, fusarium.
Buyers want: min. alkaloids 3.5%.
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Sowing rate: seed 100g/1000plants, rootlets 300-1000/1000 plants.
Planting: for potted plant production, best to start with rootlets. Pot up rootlets 4 weeks before sale. Provide cool, shaded, and well-ventilated conditions; will not tolerate full sun and high humidity.
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: alternaria and other diseases common in potted plants in greenhouses.
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Alfalfa
(Medicago sativa ) |
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Market
|
Products: (seeds, leaf, herb); (herb, sprouts)
Market size: (excluding acreage planted for fodder): 12,000 hectares (world); 5,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices and acreage up
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Culture |
Seed density: 350 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained; pH 6.0-7.5
Crop duration: 1-4 years
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(herb) |
Sowing rate: 9-13kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring, broadcast or sow in rows, 15-30cm apart. Two or more cuts at bud stage possible; last cut 6 weeks before killing frost. Heavy potash and phosphorus feeder.
Yield: dry herb 8-10,000kg/ha (years 1-4).
Pests: weevil, leafminer, leafhopper, snout beetle
Diseases: verticillium wilt, leafspot, phytophthora root rot.
Buyers want: organic product.
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(sprouts) |
Planting: soak seeds overnight; drain, keep moist. Ready in 3-5 days.
Yield: 4kg(sprouts)/kg(seeds).
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Arnica
(A. montana, A. chamissonis) |
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Market
|
Products: (flower, root); (flower);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 160 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume down
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Culture |
Seed density: 700-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, humus-rich, pH 7 (A. chamissonis), pH 4.5-6 (A. montana)
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 1-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing not recommended. Sow in seedflats or plugs. Sow A. montana 16-20 weeks before transplanting to field; sow A. chamissonis 12 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 15-60cm between rows x 15-20cm within rows.
Harvest: flower (years 2-5), root (year 3 or 4).
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: chlorosis (yellow leaves) in A. montana caused by alkaline soil.
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Sowing rate: 8-10g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in seedflats or plugs 20 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8 weeks.
Pests: few problems, whitefly occasionally
Diseases: few problems.
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Lemon Balm
(Melissa officinalis) |
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Market
|
Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 75 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 2000 seeds/gram
Exposure: sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained clay or sandy loam, pH 6 to 7.5
Crop duration: 2-4 years
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Sowing rate: 7-9kg/ha (direct), 250-400g/ha (indirect, in plugs).
Planting: sowing in plugs in greenhouse in early spring till mid-summer is most common method; sow 6-8 weeks before transplanting to field. Direct sowing is not as common because weed control is more difficult; sow in early spring or late fall (to come up next spring).
Field spacing: 50-75cm between rows x 18-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry herb 5000kg/ha, fresh herb 10-25t/ha (years 1-3).
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: erisyphe powdery mildew, septoria blight, puccinia rust.
Buyers want: dry carefully to conserve oil in dried herb.
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Sowing rate: 3-5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in flats or plugs 11-14 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spidermite, thrip
Diseases: mildew.
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Basil
(Ocimum basilicum, and others ) |
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Market
|
Products: (leaf, herb); (herb); (oil);
Market size: 10,000 hectares (world), 1,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 500-1000 (O. gratissimum 2600, O. kilamandscharicum 2800, O. sanctum 1500-2500) seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: rich, well-drained
Crop duration: 1 year (O. basilicum), 1-3 years (others)
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Sowing rate: 20kg/ha (direct); 3-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in spring when nighttime temperatures exceed 10°C; or sow in flats or plugs 8 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 15-25cm within rows.
Yield: fresh herb 15,000kg/ha, dry herb 1,500-2,000kg/ha, oil 30kg/ha (year 1)
Pests: aphids, thrips
Diseases: O. basilicum varieties are highly susceptible to fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum) disease. Disease persists in soil for several years. Commercial field plantings should be sown with fusarium-tolerant Nufar F1. Hydroponic operations may choose fusarium-free varieties if equipment and facilities are free of fusarium (spreads by contaminated seeds and equipment). Other basil species (e.g. O. americanum and O. gratissimum) are fusarium-tolerant.
Buyers want: not less than 0.4% essential oil in dried product.
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Sowing rate: 3-4g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in final pots, or in plugs and later transplant to final pots. Nighttime temperature must not go below 10°C.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, thrips, aphids
Diseases: fusarium (see above).
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Bay Laurel
(Laurus nobilis ) |
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Market
|
Products: (leaf); (leaf);
Market size: 2,000 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 1 seeds/gram
Exposure: sheltered position in full or half sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, moist
Crop duration: 20-50 years
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Sowing rate: 30-60kg/ha
Planting: sow stratified seeds in beds or flats.
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: leaves dried flat for visual appearance.
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Sowing rate: 5kg/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or flats in March or April.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks (after stratification).
Plugs to saleable plants: 10 weeks to a year.
Pests: whitefly, scale, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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Borage
(Borago officinalis ) |
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Market
|
Products: (seed, herb, flower, root); (herb, flower, root), (seed);
Market size: 5,000 hectares (world); 2,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, acreage up
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Culture |
Seed density: 50 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: best in well-drained, fertile, moist soil, but tolerates most soils, pH 5-8
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 5-17 kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in late spring in rows 45-90cm apart, 30-45cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 300kg/ha; fresh flower 1,000-5,000kg/ha; seed 90-450kg/ha.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: 24% gamma lineolenic acid content in seed oil.
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Sowing rate: 50-80g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots or plugs.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
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Burdock
(Arctium lappa) |
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Market
|
Products: (root, leaf); (root);
Market size: 3,000 hectares (world), 170 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 60-110 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or part sun
Soil: deep, loose, humus-rich, pH 6-8
Crop duration: 1-2 years
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Sowing rate: 4 kg/ha (direct), 1.5kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring. Or, sow in beds or plugs and transplant to field in spring. For use as fresh vegetable, dig first year roots when young and tender at 3-5 months. For dry root production, dig in fall of second year.
Field spacing: 45-90cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry root 2,000kg/ha (years 2 or 3).
Pests: few problems, grasshopper
Diseases: few problems.
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Sowing rate: 20g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs 9-10 weeks before sale.
Seeds to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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| |
Calendula
(C. officinalis) |
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Market
|
Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 880 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 150 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained; can tolerate poor soil with low nitrogen.
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 3-9kg/ha (direct), 1kg/ha (indirect in plugs).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring or autumn; or sow in plugs 4-6 weeks before field planting. Seeds need light to germinate; cover seeds lightly or press in soil only.
Field spacing: 20-70cm between rows x 10-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 1-2,000kg/ha, fresh flower 6-9,000kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: blister-beetle, cabbage-looper, caterpillar, leafhopper
Diseases: leaf spot, aster-yellows.
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Sowing rate: 15g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or direct in pots 10-12 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 4-6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, aphid, thrip, mealybug
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Caraway
(Carum carvi) |
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Market
|
Products: (seed); (seed)
Market size: 19,000 hectares (world), 2,500 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 350-400 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, pH 6-7.8.
Crop duration: 1-2 years (depending on variety)
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Sowing rate: 8-11 kg/ha.
Planting: sow standard biennial type direct in field late June or early July; harvest following year in August. Sow annual type in May (suited for warmer regions with 5-6 frost-free months). Sometimes sown with annual cover crops such as coriander, dill, mustard the first year.
Field spacing: 10-50cm between rows x 4-15cm within rows.
Yield: seed 600-3,000kg/ha, oil 4.5-7kg/ha (year 1 or 2, depending on variety).
Pests: leafhopper
Diseases: aster yellows.
Buyers want: seed minimum 3% oil, maximum 12% moisture.
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Catnip
(Nepeta cataria ) |
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Market
|
Products: (herb, leaf);
Market size: 2,400 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 1500-1600 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or partial sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, sandy, pH 6.5
Crop duration: 2-5 years
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Sowing rate: 12 kg/ha (direct), 1kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring or late fall. Or, sow in plugs 8-10 weeks before field planting. Seed needs light to germinate; sow shallow 2-4mm deep.
Field spacing: 45-90cm between rows x 30-40cm within rows.
Harvest: leaf, herb (years 2-5).
Yield: dry herb 3-6t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
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Sowing rate: 3g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or seedflats 12-15 weeks before sale. Sow 2-4mm deep.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8-10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3-5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
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Chamomile
(Matricaria recutita, Chamaemelum nobile ) |
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Market
|
Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 40,000 hectares (world), 4,800 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 10,000-18,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained, moist to dry
Crop duration: 1 year (M. recutita), 2-3 years (C. nobile)
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Sowing rate: 3-4 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect)
Planting: german (M. recutita) is sown direct in field in spring or fall. Fall sowings germinate following spring. Roman (C. nobile) is sown direct or indirect in plugs which are later planted in field. Surface sow only (needs light to germinate). Hand harvesting flowers problematic in areas where labour cost is high; mechanical harvesting still unproven.
Field spacing: 10-50cm between rows x 10-25cm within rows, or broadcast sown.
Yield: dry flower 350-500kg/ha (M. recutita; year 1), 600-1000 kg/ha (C. nobile; years 1-3).
Pests: cnephasia moth
Diseases: aster yellows.
Buyers want: 0.4% or more volatile oil.
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Sowing rate: 1g/1000plants.
Planting: german (M. recutita) not normally sold in pots; roman (C. nobile) and its varieties are sold in pots or plugs. Seeds need light to germinate; surface sow only.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4-6 weeks.
Pests: aphid, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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Chives
(Allium schoenoprasum, A. tuberosum ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf, flower); (leaf, flower);
Market size: 24,000 hectares (world), 3,200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 750 (A. schoenoprasum), 200-300 (A. tuberosum) seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, humus-rich
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 2-3 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring, or sow indirect in plugs 12-16 weeks before field planting. Field must be free of quackgrass otherwise harvests will be contaminated.
Field spacing: 30cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: fresh leaf 10-20t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: aphid
Diseases: puccinia rust, downy mildew.
Buyers want: good green colour (dry leaf).
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Sowing rate: 5-20g/1000plants (A. schoenoprasum), 50g/1000plants (A. tuberosum)
Planting: sow 10-15 seeds per plug or pot, or sow same amount direct in pots.
Seeds to saleable plants: 24-30 weeks.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12-16 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 11 weeks.
Pests: aphid, thrip
Diseases: few problems.
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Comfrey
(Symphytum officinale, S. x uplandicum) |
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Market
|
Products: (leaf, root); (root, herb);
Market size: 1,700 hectares (world), 240 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 90-100 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or part sun
Soil: moist, wet or dry
Crop duration: 2-5 years
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Sowing rate: 600-900g/ha (indirect).
Planting: although seed can be sown direct, the high cost of seed dictates indirect sowing in plugs or seedbed and transplanting to field. Root cuttings (12,000/ha) of named cultivars (e.g. Bocking No. 14) recommended over seed.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 90cm within rows.
Yield: dry leaf 12t/ha (years 2-5), dry root 1,800kg/ha (year 3, 4 or 5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: comfrey rust.
Buyers want: low pyrrolizidine alkaloid content, particularly echimidine; leaf should be cut early to avoid alkaloid buildup.
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Sowing rate: 50-70g/1000plants.
Planting: sow S. officinale in plugs or seedflats 12-14 weeks before sale. S. x uplandicum and ornamental varieties are propagated by division or root cutting.
Seeds to saleable plants: 12 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, aphid
Diseases: comfrey rust.
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Coriander, Cilantro
(Coriandrum sativum) |
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Market
|
Products: (seed); (herb); (seed, herb);
Market size: 600,000 hectares (world), 5,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 110-150 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun (seed), full or half sun (fresh herb)
Soil: deep, fertile, light or heavy, well-drained, pH 6.5-7.5
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 25 kg/ha (seed), 80 kg/ha (fresh herb).
Planting: for seed and seed oil production, sow direct in spring. For fresh herb (cilantro) and herb oil production sow early spring and fall; will bolt in hot weather.
Field spacing: 50-60cm between rows x 11-13cm between plants (seed), 20-25cm between rows x 8-10cm (fresh herb).
Yield: seed 900-1,500kg/ha, fresh herb 10-12t/ha, oil 1-9kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: thrip
Diseases: asters yellow, erysiphe powdery mildew, puccinia rust, pseudamonas, and sclerotina.
Buyers want: less than 12% moisture.
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Sowing rate: 200g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots; do not transplant – root disturbance causes plants to bolt early.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: aphid, thrip, mite, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Dandelion
(Taraxacum officinale) |
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Market
|
Products: (root, herb); (leaf)
Market size: 7,000 hectares (world); 500 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 1200-1900 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: most soils
Crop duration: 2 years (root), 1-4 years (fresh leaf)
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Sowing rate: 1-3kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring or late summer. Fresh leaf gathered as vegetable spring, summer and fall. Herb for drying harvested spring or summer. Roots dug late fall.
Field spacing: 45cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: dry root 1100-1700kg/ha (year 2).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: water-soluble extractive not less than 30%.
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Dill
(Anethum graveolens, A. sowa ) |
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Market
|
Products: (seed, herb); (leaf); (leaf, seed);
Market size: 37,000 hectares (world), 4,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices same, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 400-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, moderately rich, loose soil, pH 5.5-6.5
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 9-12 kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in spring.
Field spacing: 25-50cm between rows; thin to 10cm within rows for fresh herb production or 2-3cm within rows for seed production.
Yield: seed 600-900kg/ha, fresh herb 2500-5000kg/ha, dried herb 1000kg/ha, oil 50-110kg/ha.
Pests: aphid, tarnished plant bug
Diseases: powdery mildew, leafspot, aster yellows.
Buyers want: good green colour (dried leaf).
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Sowing rate: 15-40g/1000pots.
Planting: do not transplant; sow direct in pots, 8-20 seeds per pot.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: aphid
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Echinacea
(Echinacea purpurea, E. angustifolia, E. pallida ) |
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Market
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Products: (root, herb, flower, seed); (herb);
Market size: 16,000 hectares (world), 4,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices down, acreage up; market for E. purpurea herb is weak.
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Culture |
Seed density: 160-500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained, pH 6-7.5
Crop duration: 3-4 years
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Sowing rate: 14-18 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: E. purpurea seeds do not require pretreatment. Can be started in plugs and transplanted to the field, which is the preferred method, or can be sown direct in the field. Sow E. purpurea 100-120 days before field planting; sow E. angustifolia and E. pallida 150 days before planting. E. angustifolia and E. pallida germination benefits from pretreatment; stratify at 5°C for 4-12 weeks with light. Pretreatment with Ethrel (1 millimolar for 2 weeks), or with bleach (1% for 10 min.) improves E. angustifolia germination.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 20-45cm within rows.
Yield: E. purpurea herb 6,500-11,000kg/ha (years 2-4); E. purpurea root 1000kg/ha (year 4); E. angustifolia root 1100kg/ha (year 4); no data for E. pallida root.
Pests: leafhopper
Diseases: aster yellows (spread by leafhoppers), sclerotinia stem and root rot, botrytis.
Buyers want: certificate of botanical identity required for E. angustifolia; echinacoside 1.4% (roots).
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Sowing rate: 10g/1000plants.
Planting: sow 14 weeks (E. purpurea) to 22 weeks (E. angustifolia, E. pallida) before sale. Stratify or pretreat E. angustifolia and E. pallida seed before sowing (see above).
Seeds to finished plugs: 8-12 weeks (after pretreatment).
Plugs to saleable plants: 6-10 weeks.
Pests: few problems, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Elecampane
(Inula helenium ) |
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Market
|
Products: (root); (root);
Market size: 800 hectares (world), 25 ha (North America).
Prospects: prices same, volume same
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Culture |
Seed density: 600-800 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: moist, deep, well-drained
Crop duration: 2 years.
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Sowing rate: 400-600g/ha (direct); 5g/1000plants (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing not recommended. Start in plugs 8 weeks before spring or late summer field planting.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 45cm within rows.
Yield: 2500kg/ha (year 2).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: erysiphe powdery mildew (late summer), ramularia leafspot, puccinia rust.
Buyers want: not less than 1.8% volatile oil, not more than 6-8% ash, not less than 27% water-soluble extractive, not more than 2% foreign matter.
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Sowing rate: 5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs, seedflats or seed beds. Germination in 4-7 days.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 2-6 weeks.
Pests: spider mite, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Fennel
(Foeniculum vulgare) |
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Market
|
Products: (seed); (leaf, bulb); (herb);
Market size: 70,000 hectares (world), 7,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 200-300 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, deep, moderately fertile, pH 7-8.
Crop duration: 2-3 years (florence fennel, 1 year)
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Sowing rate: 4-6kg/ha (direct), 30g/1000plants (indirect).
Planting: sow sweet fennel direct; bronze direct or indirect; florence indirect.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: seed 1000-1600kg/ha (years 2-3), fresh herb 8-10t/ha (year 1-3), dried herb 1.5-2.5t/ha (year 1-3), seed oil 40-75kg/ha.
Pests: aphid, lygus tarnished plant bug
Diseases: sclerotinia stemrot, rhizoctonia damping-off, erwinia soft rot.
Buyers want: not less than 2-4% volatile oil.
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Sowing rate: 30g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots or in plugs. Does not transplant well; best to sow direct.
Seeds to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3 weeks.
Pests: aphid
Diseases: damping-off.
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Fenugreek
(Trigonella foenum-graecum) |
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Market
|
Products: (seeds, leaf, herb); (herb, sprouts); (seed)
Market size: 90,000 hectares (world), 7,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 100 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, warm soil
Crop duration: 1 year.
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Sowing rate: 25-35kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in spring. Broadcast or in close rows.
Field spacing: 20cm between rows x 10-20cm within rows.
Yield: seed 700-900kg/ha, dried forage 2-10t/ha.
Pests: no data
Diseases: no data.
Buyers want: swelling index not less than 6, foreign matter not more than 2-5%, ash not more than 5-6% (seed).
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Feverfew
(Tanacetum parthenium) |
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Market
|
Products: (herb);
Market size: 1,300 hectares (world), 160 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume down
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Culture |
Seed density: 7,500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained, dry soil
Crop duration: 1-2 years
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Sowing rate: 1-1.5 kg/ha (direct); 0.5g/1000plants.
Planting: plugs preferred over direct sowing because seeds very small. Sow plugs 8 weeks before spring planting date. Don't allow to go to seed to avoid winterkill. Frequent fertilization with low nitrogen fertilizer is beneficial. Long days trigger flowering. Short lived perennial; some growers treat as annual.
Field spacing: 20-90cm between rows x 10-20cm within rows.
Yield: 300-5000kg/ha (years 1-2).
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: minimum 0.4-0.8% parthenolide.
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Sowing rate: 0.5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow 14-16 weeks before sales in flats or plug trays.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6-8 weeks.
Pests: aphid, whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
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Scented Geranium
(Pelargonium spp. ) |
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Market
|
Products: (leaf); (leaf);
Market size: 4,000 hectares (world), 400 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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|
Culture |
Seed density: 360-450 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, neutral to alkaline
Crop duration: 1 year temperate areas, 3-5 year in tropical areas.d o Planting: all commercially important varieties are propagated by cuttings. Plugs planted in spring after last frost date. FieldSpacing: 60-100cm between rows x 20-50cm within rows. Yield: fresh leaf 13-30t/ha, oil 13-17kg/ha (years 1-5). PestsDiseases: aphid, caterpillar / alternaria leaf spot.
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Seeds/ |
Planting: all commercially important varieties are propagated by cuttings. Plugs planted in spring after last frost date.
Field spacing: 60-100cm between rows x 20-50cm within rows.
Yield: fresh leaf 13-30t/ha, oil 13-17kg/ha (years 1-5).
Pests: aphid, caterpillar
Diseases: alternaria leaf spot.
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Sowing rate: 30-80g/1000 plants.
Planting: commercial propagation is by cutting only.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6-8 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, geranium and peach aphid, mite, mealybug, scale
Diseases: various leaf spots including xanthomonas, alternaria, botrytis.
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Gingko
(Ginkgo biloba ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (seed);
Market size: 5,000 hectares (world), 600 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 1 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: rich, well-drained, moist soil
Crop duration: 20-50+ years
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Sowing rate: 2-4kg/hectare.
Planting: seeds require stratification, 1-2 months warm, then 1-2 months cold, then sow in spring. Common nursery practice is to sow without stratification in outdoor seed beds in fall. Seedlings shaded for 2-3 years and fertilized with manure. Seedlings transplanted to permanent location when 7-8 years old. Trees kept short (2m) and spaced close (2-3m) in commercial plantations for medicinal leaf production; otherwise allowed to grow higher and spaced further for seed production. Slow growing. Leaves harvested in early fall as they begin to turn yellow; dried in sun. Fruits harvested late fall, seeds cleaned and roasted.
Field spacing: 3-5m apart (2-3m within rows for leaf production).
Yield: no data (leaf years 8-50, seed years 20-50).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: tolerates pollution.
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Sowing rate: 2-4kg/1000 plants.
Planting: stratify seed warm (1-2 months) followed by cold (1-2 months). Sow in deep plugs. Keep lightly shaded.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks to 1 year.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8 weeks (10cm pots), 2-5 years (larger plants).
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Ginseng
(Panax quinquefolius, P. ginseng; Eleutherococcus senticosus) |
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Market
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Products: (root)
Market size: Panax 70,000 hectares (world), 7,400 ha (North America)
Prospects: Panax prices down, volume up. Prospects for woodsgrown Panax much better than shadecloth grown.
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Culture |
Seed density: Panax 15; Eleutherococcus 100 seeds/gram
Exposure: Panax 70% shade; Eleutherococcus 30-50% shade
Soil: well-drained, sandy or clay loam, in raised beds, pH 5.5-6.0
Crop duration: Panax 3-4 years (shadecloth), 4-8 years (woodsgrown); Eleutherococcus 6-12 years
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Sowing rate: 40-100 kg/ha (shadecloth), 10-20 kg/ha (woodsgrown).
Planting: Panax seeds stratified one year. Sow stratified seeds in seedbeds and transplant seedlings to raised beds in years 1-2, or sow direct in raised beds. Mulch with straw. Remove shadecloth over winter. Eleutherococcus seeds need at least cycles of warm-cold stratification; best results obtained when sown in flats in fall and left out over winter under mulch.
Field spacing: Panax 15-20cm between rows x 15-20cm within rows, further apart in woodsgrown plantings; Eleutherococcus 60-100cm apart.
Yield: Panax (shadecloth) 3400kg/ha (years 3-4).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: Panax alternaria leaf blight, rhizoctonia wilt, phytophthora, powdery mildew; Eleutherococcus few problems.
Buyers want: ginsenosides not less than 1.5-2%, ash not more than 4-8%.
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Sowing rate: Panax 150g/1000 plants; Eleutherococcus 250g/1000plants.
Planting: sow stratified Panax seeds in deep plugs, 2-4 seeds per plug, or sow in seed flats. Provide shade, keep cool and well ventilated.
Seeds to finished plugs: Panax 6 months (after stratification).
Plugs to saleable plants: Panax 1 year.
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: Panax alternaria, rhizoctonia.
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Goldenseal
(Hydrastis canadensis) |
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Market
|
Products: (root);
Market size: 17,000 hectares (world), 7,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices down, volume up. Majority of market supplied by wildcrafted material, but wild stocks are becoming depleted and now listed on CITES.
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Culture |
Seed density: 50-55 seeds/gram
Exposure: 50-75% Shade
Soil: well-drained, deep, fertile soil, pH 5.5-6.5, in raised beds or on gentle slope.
Crop duration: 3-6 years
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Sowing rate: 10kg/ha (direct), 100g/1000 plants (indirect); rootlets 100,000/ha.
Planting: growers prefer rootlets over seeds because they are more reliable and quicker to harvestable size (3 years); however, seed quality has improved recently and cost of seeds is much less than rootlets. Seeds take 5-6 years to get harvestable roots. Seeds must not dry out; must be sown immediately after harvest in late summer to come up following spring. Avoid straw mulch and fertilize lightly.
Field spacing: 15-40cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: 900-2300kg/ha (year 3-6).
Pests: slugs
Diseases: alternaria, phytophthora, rhizoctonia, botrytis leafspot, fusarium.
Buyers want: min. alkaloids 3.5%.
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Sowing rate: seed 100g/1000plants, rootlets 300-1000/1000 plants.
Planting: for potted plant production, best to start with rootlets. Pot up rootlets 4 weeks before sale. Provide cool, shaded, and well-ventilated conditions; will not tolerate full sun and high humidity.
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: alternaria and other diseases common in potted plants in greenhouses.
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Lavender
(Lavandula angustifolia, L. x intermedia) |
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Market
|
Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 9,000 hectares (world), 1,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 850-1300 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained, deep, not too rich, pH 6.5-7.5
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 3-6kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: lavandins (L. x intermedia; e.g. 'Provence' and 'Grosso'), best for commercial flower and oil production, are propagated vegetatively only. Only english types are available in seed form, but seed grown material may not be uniform enough for field production. Direct sowing not recommended; germination is too slow (15-30 days). Sow in seedflats 12-16 weeks before outdoor planting; transplant to plugs at 4-6 weeks, then transplant to field.
Field spacing: 60-120cm between rows x 25-120cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 500-1500kg/ha (years 2-5), oil 8-32kg/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: caterpillar, nematode
Diseases: phoma scab, septoria leaf spot, armillaria root rot.
Buyers want: 1.3% volatile oil or higher, good colour.
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Sowing rate: 5-10g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow 20-26 weeks before sale. Germination of english types (L. angustifolia) is frequently below 50%; scarification or freezing of seedflat can sometimes improve germination.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12-16 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8-10 weeks.
Pests: mealybug, whitefly, spider mite, scale
Diseases: few problems.
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Alfalfa
(Medicago sativa ) |
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Market
|
Products: (seeds, leaf, herb); (herb, sprouts)
Market size: (excluding acreage planted for fodder): 12,000 hectares (world); 5,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices and acreage up
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Culture |
Seed density: 350 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained; pH 6.0-7.5
Crop duration: 1-4 years
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(herb) |
Sowing rate: 9-13kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring, broadcast or sow in rows, 15-30cm apart. Two or more cuts at bud stage possible; last cut 6 weeks before killing frost. Heavy potash and phosphorus feeder.
Yield: dry herb 8-10,000kg/ha (years 1-4).
Pests: weevil, leafminer, leafhopper, snout beetle
Diseases: verticillium wilt, leafspot, phytophthora root rot.
Buyers want: organic product.
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(sprouts) |
Planting: soak seeds overnight; drain, keep moist. Ready in 3-5 days.
Yield: 4kg(sprouts)/kg(seeds).
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| |
Arnica
(A. montana, A. chamissonis) |
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Market
|
Products: (flower, root); (flower);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 160 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume down
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Culture |
Seed density: 700-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, humus-rich, pH 7 (A. chamissonis), pH 4.5-6 (A. montana)
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 1-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing not recommended. Sow in seedflats or plugs. Sow A. montana 16-20 weeks before transplanting to field; sow A. chamissonis 12 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 15-60cm between rows x 15-20cm within rows.
Harvest: flower (years 2-5), root (year 3 or 4).
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: chlorosis (yellow leaves) in A. montana caused by alkaline soil.
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Sowing rate: 8-10g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in seedflats or plugs 20 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8 weeks.
Pests: few problems, whitefly occasionally
Diseases: few problems.
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| |
Lemon Balm
(Melissa officinalis) |
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Market
|
Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 75 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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|
Culture |
Seed density: 2000 seeds/gram
Exposure: sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained clay or sandy loam, pH 6 to 7.5
Crop duration: 2-4 years
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Sowing rate: 7-9kg/ha (direct), 250-400g/ha (indirect, in plugs).
Planting: sowing in plugs in greenhouse in early spring till mid-summer is most common method; sow 6-8 weeks before transplanting to field. Direct sowing is not as common because weed control is more difficult; sow in early spring or late fall (to come up next spring).
Field spacing: 50-75cm between rows x 18-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry herb 5000kg/ha, fresh herb 10-25t/ha (years 1-3).
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: erisyphe powdery mildew, septoria blight, puccinia rust.
Buyers want: dry carefully to conserve oil in dried herb.
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Sowing rate: 3-5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in flats or plugs 11-14 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spidermite, thrip
Diseases: mildew.
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Basil
(Ocimum basilicum, and others ) |
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Market
|
Products: (leaf, herb); (herb); (oil);
Market size: 10,000 hectares (world), 1,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 500-1000 (O. gratissimum 2600, O. kilamandscharicum 2800, O. sanctum 1500-2500) seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: rich, well-drained
Crop duration: 1 year (O. basilicum), 1-3 years (others)
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Sowing rate: 20kg/ha (direct); 3-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in spring when nighttime temperatures exceed 10°C; or sow in flats or plugs 8 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 15-25cm within rows.
Yield: fresh herb 15,000kg/ha, dry herb 1,500-2,000kg/ha, oil 30kg/ha (year 1)
Pests: aphids, thrips
Diseases: O. basilicum varieties are highly susceptible to fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum) disease. Disease persists in soil for several years. Commercial field plantings should be sown with fusarium-tolerant Nufar F1. Hydroponic operations may choose fusarium-free varieties if equipment and facilities are free of fusarium (spreads by contaminated seeds and equipment). Other basil species (e.g. O. americanum and O. gratissimum) are fusarium-tolerant.
Buyers want: not less than 0.4% essential oil in dried product.
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Sowing rate: 3-4g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in final pots, or in plugs and later transplant to final pots. Nighttime temperature must not go below 10°C.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, thrips, aphids
Diseases: fusarium (see above).
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Bay Laurel
(Laurus nobilis ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (leaf);
Market size: 2,000 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 1 seeds/gram
Exposure: sheltered position in full or half sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, moist
Crop duration: 20-50 years
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Sowing rate: 30-60kg/ha
Planting: sow stratified seeds in beds or flats.
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: leaves dried flat for visual appearance.
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Sowing rate: 5kg/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or flats in March or April.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks (after stratification).
Plugs to saleable plants: 10 weeks to a year.
Pests: whitefly, scale, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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Borage
(Borago officinalis ) |
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Market
|
Products: (seed, herb, flower, root); (herb, flower, root), (seed);
Market size: 5,000 hectares (world); 2,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, acreage up
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Culture |
Seed density: 50 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: best in well-drained, fertile, moist soil, but tolerates most soils, pH 5-8
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 5-17 kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in late spring in rows 45-90cm apart, 30-45cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 300kg/ha; fresh flower 1,000-5,000kg/ha; seed 90-450kg/ha.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: 24% gamma lineolenic acid content in seed oil.
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Sowing rate: 50-80g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots or plugs.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
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Burdock
(Arctium lappa) |
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Market
|
Products: (root, leaf); (root);
Market size: 3,000 hectares (world), 170 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 60-110 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or part sun
Soil: deep, loose, humus-rich, pH 6-8
Crop duration: 1-2 years
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Sowing rate: 4 kg/ha (direct), 1.5kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring. Or, sow in beds or plugs and transplant to field in spring. For use as fresh vegetable, dig first year roots when young and tender at 3-5 months. For dry root production, dig in fall of second year.
Field spacing: 45-90cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry root 2,000kg/ha (years 2 or 3).
Pests: few problems, grasshopper
Diseases: few problems.
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Sowing rate: 20g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs 9-10 weeks before sale.
Seeds to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Calendula
(C. officinalis) |
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Market
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Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 880 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 150 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained; can tolerate poor soil with low nitrogen.
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 3-9kg/ha (direct), 1kg/ha (indirect in plugs).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring or autumn; or sow in plugs 4-6 weeks before field planting. Seeds need light to germinate; cover seeds lightly or press in soil only.
Field spacing: 20-70cm between rows x 10-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 1-2,000kg/ha, fresh flower 6-9,000kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: blister-beetle, cabbage-looper, caterpillar, leafhopper
Diseases: leaf spot, aster-yellows.
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Sowing rate: 15g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or direct in pots 10-12 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 4-6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, aphid, thrip, mealybug
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Caraway
(Carum carvi) |
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Market
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Products: (seed); (seed)
Market size: 19,000 hectares (world), 2,500 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 350-400 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, pH 6-7.8.
Crop duration: 1-2 years (depending on variety)
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Sowing rate: 8-11 kg/ha.
Planting: sow standard biennial type direct in field late June or early July; harvest following year in August. Sow annual type in May (suited for warmer regions with 5-6 frost-free months). Sometimes sown with annual cover crops such as coriander, dill, mustard the first year.
Field spacing: 10-50cm between rows x 4-15cm within rows.
Yield: seed 600-3,000kg/ha, oil 4.5-7kg/ha (year 1 or 2, depending on variety).
Pests: leafhopper
Diseases: aster yellows.
Buyers want: seed minimum 3% oil, maximum 12% moisture.
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Catnip
(Nepeta cataria ) |
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Market
|
Products: (herb, leaf);
Market size: 2,400 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 1500-1600 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or partial sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, sandy, pH 6.5
Crop duration: 2-5 years
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Sowing rate: 12 kg/ha (direct), 1kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring or late fall. Or, sow in plugs 8-10 weeks before field planting. Seed needs light to germinate; sow shallow 2-4mm deep.
Field spacing: 45-90cm between rows x 30-40cm within rows.
Harvest: leaf, herb (years 2-5).
Yield: dry herb 3-6t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
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Sowing rate: 3g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or seedflats 12-15 weeks before sale. Sow 2-4mm deep.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8-10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3-5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
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Chamomile
(Matricaria recutita, Chamaemelum nobile ) |
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Market
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Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 40,000 hectares (world), 4,800 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 10,000-18,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained, moist to dry
Crop duration: 1 year (M. recutita), 2-3 years (C. nobile)
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Sowing rate: 3-4 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect)
Planting: german (M. recutita) is sown direct in field in spring or fall. Fall sowings germinate following spring. Roman (C. nobile) is sown direct or indirect in plugs which are later planted in field. Surface sow only (needs light to germinate). Hand harvesting flowers problematic in areas where labour cost is high; mechanical harvesting still unproven.
Field spacing: 10-50cm between rows x 10-25cm within rows, or broadcast sown.
Yield: dry flower 350-500kg/ha (M. recutita; year 1), 600-1000 kg/ha (C. nobile; years 1-3).
Pests: cnephasia moth
Diseases: aster yellows.
Buyers want: 0.4% or more volatile oil.
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Sowing rate: 1g/1000plants.
Planting: german (M. recutita) not normally sold in pots; roman (C. nobile) and its varieties are sold in pots or plugs. Seeds need light to germinate; surface sow only.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4-6 weeks.
Pests: aphid, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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Chives
(Allium schoenoprasum, A. tuberosum ) |
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Market
|
Products: (leaf, flower); (leaf, flower);
Market size: 24,000 hectares (world), 3,200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 750 (A. schoenoprasum), 200-300 (A. tuberosum) seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, humus-rich
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 2-3 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring, or sow indirect in plugs 12-16 weeks before field planting. Field must be free of quackgrass otherwise harvests will be contaminated.
Field spacing: 30cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: fresh leaf 10-20t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: aphid
Diseases: puccinia rust, downy mildew.
Buyers want: good green colour (dry leaf).
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Sowing rate: 5-20g/1000plants (A. schoenoprasum), 50g/1000plants (A. tuberosum)
Planting: sow 10-15 seeds per plug or pot, or sow same amount direct in pots.
Seeds to saleable plants: 24-30 weeks.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12-16 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 11 weeks.
Pests: aphid, thrip
Diseases: few problems.
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Comfrey
(Symphytum officinale, S. x uplandicum) |
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Market
|
Products: (leaf, root); (root, herb);
Market size: 1,700 hectares (world), 240 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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|
Culture |
Seed density: 90-100 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or part sun
Soil: moist, wet or dry
Crop duration: 2-5 years
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|
|
Sowing rate: 600-900g/ha (indirect).
Planting: although seed can be sown direct, the high cost of seed dictates indirect sowing in plugs or seedbed and transplanting to field. Root cuttings (12,000/ha) of named cultivars (e.g. Bocking No. 14) recommended over seed.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 90cm within rows.
Yield: dry leaf 12t/ha (years 2-5), dry root 1,800kg/ha (year 3, 4 or 5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: comfrey rust.
Buyers want: low pyrrolizidine alkaloid content, particularly echimidine; leaf should be cut early to avoid alkaloid buildup.
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Sowing rate: 50-70g/1000plants.
Planting: sow S. officinale in plugs or seedflats 12-14 weeks before sale. S. x uplandicum and ornamental varieties are propagated by division or root cutting.
Seeds to saleable plants: 12 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, aphid
Diseases: comfrey rust.
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Coriander, Cilantro
(Coriandrum sativum) |
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Market
|
Products: (seed); (herb); (seed, herb);
Market size: 600,000 hectares (world), 5,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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|
Culture |
Seed density: 110-150 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun (seed), full or half sun (fresh herb)
Soil: deep, fertile, light or heavy, well-drained, pH 6.5-7.5
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 25 kg/ha (seed), 80 kg/ha (fresh herb).
Planting: for seed and seed oil production, sow direct in spring. For fresh herb (cilantro) and herb oil production sow early spring and fall; will bolt in hot weather.
Field spacing: 50-60cm between rows x 11-13cm between plants (seed), 20-25cm between rows x 8-10cm (fresh herb).
Yield: seed 900-1,500kg/ha, fresh herb 10-12t/ha, oil 1-9kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: thrip
Diseases: asters yellow, erysiphe powdery mildew, puccinia rust, pseudamonas, and sclerotina.
Buyers want: less than 12% moisture.
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|
Sowing rate: 200g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots; do not transplant – root disturbance causes plants to bolt early.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: aphid, thrip, mite, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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| |
Dandelion
(Taraxacum officinale) |
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Market
|
Products: (root, herb); (leaf)
Market size: 7,000 hectares (world); 500 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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|
Culture |
Seed density: 1200-1900 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: most soils
Crop duration: 2 years (root), 1-4 years (fresh leaf)
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|
|
Sowing rate: 1-3kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring or late summer. Fresh leaf gathered as vegetable spring, summer and fall. Herb for drying harvested spring or summer. Roots dug late fall.
Field spacing: 45cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: dry root 1100-1700kg/ha (year 2).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: water-soluble extractive not less than 30%.
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Dill
(Anethum graveolens, A. sowa ) |
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Market
|
Products: (seed, herb); (leaf); (leaf, seed);
Market size: 37,000 hectares (world), 4,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices same, volume up
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|
Culture |
Seed density: 400-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, moderately rich, loose soil, pH 5.5-6.5
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 9-12 kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in spring.
Field spacing: 25-50cm between rows; thin to 10cm within rows for fresh herb production or 2-3cm within rows for seed production.
Yield: seed 600-900kg/ha, fresh herb 2500-5000kg/ha, dried herb 1000kg/ha, oil 50-110kg/ha.
Pests: aphid, tarnished plant bug
Diseases: powdery mildew, leafspot, aster yellows.
Buyers want: good green colour (dried leaf).
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Sowing rate: 15-40g/1000pots.
Planting: do not transplant; sow direct in pots, 8-20 seeds per pot.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: aphid
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Echinacea
(Echinacea purpurea, E. angustifolia, E. pallida ) |
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Market
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Products: (root, herb, flower, seed); (herb);
Market size: 16,000 hectares (world), 4,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices down, acreage up; market for E. purpurea herb is weak.
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Culture |
Seed density: 160-500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained, pH 6-7.5
Crop duration: 3-4 years
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Sowing rate: 14-18 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: E. purpurea seeds do not require pretreatment. Can be started in plugs and transplanted to the field, which is the preferred method, or can be sown direct in the field. Sow E. purpurea 100-120 days before field planting; sow E. angustifolia and E. pallida 150 days before planting. E. angustifolia and E. pallida germination benefits from pretreatment; stratify at 5°C for 4-12 weeks with light. Pretreatment with Ethrel (1 millimolar for 2 weeks), or with bleach (1% for 10 min.) improves E. angustifolia germination.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 20-45cm within rows.
Yield: E. purpurea herb 6,500-11,000kg/ha (years 2-4); E. purpurea root 1000kg/ha (year 4); E. angustifolia root 1100kg/ha (year 4); no data for E. pallida root.
Pests: leafhopper
Diseases: aster yellows (spread by leafhoppers), sclerotinia stem and root rot, botrytis.
Buyers want: certificate of botanical identity required for E. angustifolia; echinacoside 1.4% (roots).
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Sowing rate: 10g/1000plants.
Planting: sow 14 weeks (E. purpurea) to 22 weeks (E. angustifolia, E. pallida) before sale. Stratify or pretreat E. angustifolia and E. pallida seed before sowing (see above).
Seeds to finished plugs: 8-12 weeks (after pretreatment).
Plugs to saleable plants: 6-10 weeks.
Pests: few problems, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Elecampane
(Inula helenium ) |
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Market
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Products: (root); (root);
Market size: 800 hectares (world), 25 ha (North America).
Prospects: prices same, volume same
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Culture |
Seed density: 600-800 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: moist, deep, well-drained
Crop duration: 2 years.
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Sowing rate: 400-600g/ha (direct); 5g/1000plants (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing not recommended. Start in plugs 8 weeks before spring or late summer field planting.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 45cm within rows.
Yield: 2500kg/ha (year 2).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: erysiphe powdery mildew (late summer), ramularia leafspot, puccinia rust.
Buyers want: not less than 1.8% volatile oil, not more than 6-8% ash, not less than 27% water-soluble extractive, not more than 2% foreign matter.
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Sowing rate: 5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs, seedflats or seed beds. Germination in 4-7 days.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 2-6 weeks.
Pests: spider mite, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Fennel
(Foeniculum vulgare) |
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Market
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Products: (seed); (leaf, bulb); (herb);
Market size: 70,000 hectares (world), 7,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 200-300 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, deep, moderately fertile, pH 7-8.
Crop duration: 2-3 years (florence fennel, 1 year)
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Sowing rate: 4-6kg/ha (direct), 30g/1000plants (indirect).
Planting: sow sweet fennel direct; bronze direct or indirect; florence indirect.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: seed 1000-1600kg/ha (years 2-3), fresh herb 8-10t/ha (year 1-3), dried herb 1.5-2.5t/ha (year 1-3), seed oil 40-75kg/ha.
Pests: aphid, lygus tarnished plant bug
Diseases: sclerotinia stemrot, rhizoctonia damping-off, erwinia soft rot.
Buyers want: not less than 2-4% volatile oil.
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Sowing rate: 30g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots or in plugs. Does not transplant well; best to sow direct.
Seeds to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3 weeks.
Pests: aphid
Diseases: damping-off.
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Fenugreek
(Trigonella foenum-graecum) |
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Market
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Products: (seeds, leaf, herb); (herb, sprouts); (seed)
Market size: 90,000 hectares (world), 7,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 100 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, warm soil
Crop duration: 1 year.
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Sowing rate: 25-35kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in spring. Broadcast or in close rows.
Field spacing: 20cm between rows x 10-20cm within rows.
Yield: seed 700-900kg/ha, dried forage 2-10t/ha.
Pests: no data
Diseases: no data.
Buyers want: swelling index not less than 6, foreign matter not more than 2-5%, ash not more than 5-6% (seed).
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Feverfew
(Tanacetum parthenium) |
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Market
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Products: (herb);
Market size: 1,300 hectares (world), 160 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume down
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Culture |
Seed density: 7,500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained, dry soil
Crop duration: 1-2 years
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Sowing rate: 1-1.5 kg/ha (direct); 0.5g/1000plants.
Planting: plugs preferred over direct sowing because seeds very small. Sow plugs 8 weeks before spring planting date. Don't allow to go to seed to avoid winterkill. Frequent fertilization with low nitrogen fertilizer is beneficial. Long days trigger flowering. Short lived perennial; some growers treat as annual.
Field spacing: 20-90cm between rows x 10-20cm within rows.
Yield: 300-5000kg/ha (years 1-2).
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: minimum 0.4-0.8% parthenolide.
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Sowing rate: 0.5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow 14-16 weeks before sales in flats or plug trays.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6-8 weeks.
Pests: aphid, whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
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Scented Geranium
(Pelargonium spp. ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (leaf);
Market size: 4,000 hectares (world), 400 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 360-450 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, neutral to alkaline
Crop duration: 1 year temperate areas, 3-5 year in tropical areas.d o Planting: all commercially important varieties are propagated by cuttings. Plugs planted in spring after last frost date. FieldSpacing: 60-100cm between rows x 20-50cm within rows. Yield: fresh leaf 13-30t/ha, oil 13-17kg/ha (years 1-5). PestsDiseases: aphid, caterpillar / alternaria leaf spot.
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Seeds/ |
Planting: all commercially important varieties are propagated by cuttings. Plugs planted in spring after last frost date.
Field spacing: 60-100cm between rows x 20-50cm within rows.
Yield: fresh leaf 13-30t/ha, oil 13-17kg/ha (years 1-5).
Pests: aphid, caterpillar
Diseases: alternaria leaf spot.
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Sowing rate: 30-80g/1000 plants.
Planting: commercial propagation is by cutting only.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6-8 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, geranium and peach aphid, mite, mealybug, scale
Diseases: various leaf spots including xanthomonas, alternaria, botrytis.
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Gingko
(Ginkgo biloba ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (seed);
Market size: 5,000 hectares (world), 600 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 1 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: rich, well-drained, moist soil
Crop duration: 20-50+ years
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Sowing rate: 2-4kg/hectare.
Planting: seeds require stratification, 1-2 months warm, then 1-2 months cold, then sow in spring. Common nursery practice is to sow without stratification in outdoor seed beds in fall. Seedlings shaded for 2-3 years and fertilized with manure. Seedlings transplanted to permanent location when 7-8 years old. Trees kept short (2m) and spaced close (2-3m) in commercial plantations for medicinal leaf production; otherwise allowed to grow higher and spaced further for seed production. Slow growing. Leaves harvested in early fall as they begin to turn yellow; dried in sun. Fruits harvested late fall, seeds cleaned and roasted.
Field spacing: 3-5m apart (2-3m within rows for leaf production).
Yield: no data (leaf years 8-50, seed years 20-50).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: tolerates pollution.
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Sowing rate: 2-4kg/1000 plants.
Planting: stratify seed warm (1-2 months) followed by cold (1-2 months). Sow in deep plugs. Keep lightly shaded.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks to 1 year.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8 weeks (10cm pots), 2-5 years (larger plants).
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Ginseng
(Panax quinquefolius, P. ginseng; Eleutherococcus senticosus) |
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Market
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Products: (root)
Market size: Panax 70,000 hectares (world), 7,400 ha (North America)
Prospects: Panax prices down, volume up. Prospects for woodsgrown Panax much better than shadecloth grown.
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Culture |
Seed density: Panax 15; Eleutherococcus 100 seeds/gram
Exposure: Panax 70% shade; Eleutherococcus 30-50% shade
Soil: well-drained, sandy or clay loam, in raised beds, pH 5.5-6.0
Crop duration: Panax 3-4 years (shadecloth), 4-8 years (woodsgrown); Eleutherococcus 6-12 years
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Sowing rate: 40-100 kg/ha (shadecloth), 10-20 kg/ha (woodsgrown).
Planting: Panax seeds stratified one year. Sow stratified seeds in seedbeds and transplant seedlings to raised beds in years 1-2, or sow direct in raised beds. Mulch with straw. Remove shadecloth over winter. Eleutherococcus seeds need at least cycles of warm-cold stratification; best results obtained when sown in flats in fall and left out over winter under mulch.
Field spacing: Panax 15-20cm between rows x 15-20cm within rows, further apart in woodsgrown plantings; Eleutherococcus 60-100cm apart.
Yield: Panax (shadecloth) 3400kg/ha (years 3-4).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: Panax alternaria leaf blight, rhizoctonia wilt, phytophthora, powdery mildew; Eleutherococcus few problems.
Buyers want: ginsenosides not less than 1.5-2%, ash not more than 4-8%.
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Sowing rate: Panax 150g/1000 plants; Eleutherococcus 250g/1000plants.
Planting: sow stratified Panax seeds in deep plugs, 2-4 seeds per plug, or sow in seed flats. Provide shade, keep cool and well ventilated.
Seeds to finished plugs: Panax 6 months (after stratification).
Plugs to saleable plants: Panax 1 year.
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: Panax alternaria, rhizoctonia.
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Goldenseal
(Hydrastis canadensis) |
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Market
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Products: (root);
Market size: 17,000 hectares (world), 7,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices down, volume up. Majority of market supplied by wildcrafted material, but wild stocks are becoming depleted and now listed on CITES.
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Culture |
Seed density: 50-55 seeds/gram
Exposure: 50-75% Shade
Soil: well-drained, deep, fertile soil, pH 5.5-6.5, in raised beds or on gentle slope.
Crop duration: 3-6 years
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Sowing rate: 10kg/ha (direct), 100g/1000 plants (indirect); rootlets 100,000/ha.
Planting: growers prefer rootlets over seeds because they are more reliable and quicker to harvestable size (3 years); however, seed quality has improved recently and cost of seeds is much less than rootlets. Seeds take 5-6 years to get harvestable roots. Seeds must not dry out; must be sown immediately after harvest in late summer to come up following spring. Avoid straw mulch and fertilize lightly.
Field spacing: 15-40cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: 900-2300kg/ha (year 3-6).
Pests: slugs
Diseases: alternaria, phytophthora, rhizoctonia, botrytis leafspot, fusarium.
Buyers want: min. alkaloids 3.5%.
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Sowing rate: seed 100g/1000plants, rootlets 300-1000/1000 plants.
Planting: for potted plant production, best to start with rootlets. Pot up rootlets 4 weeks before sale. Provide cool, shaded, and well-ventilated conditions; will not tolerate full sun and high humidity.
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: alternaria and other diseases common in potted plants in greenhouses.
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Lavender
(Lavandula angustifolia, L. x intermedia) |
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Market
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Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 9,000 hectares (world), 1,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 850-1300 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained, deep, not too rich, pH 6.5-7.5
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 3-6kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: lavandins (L. x intermedia; e.g. 'Provence' and 'Grosso'), best for commercial flower and oil production, are propagated vegetatively only. Only english types are available in seed form, but seed grown material may not be uniform enough for field production. Direct sowing not recommended; germination is too slow (15-30 days). Sow in seedflats 12-16 weeks before outdoor planting; transplant to plugs at 4-6 weeks, then transplant to field.
Field spacing: 60-120cm between rows x 25-120cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 500-1500kg/ha (years 2-5), oil 8-32kg/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: caterpillar, nematode
Diseases: phoma scab, septoria leaf spot, armillaria root rot.
Buyers want: 1.3% volatile oil or higher, good colour.
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Sowing rate: 5-10g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow 20-26 weeks before sale. Germination of english types (L. angustifolia) is frequently below 50%; scarification or freezing of seedflat can sometimes improve germination.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12-16 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8-10 weeks.
Pests: mealybug, whitefly, spider mite, scale
Diseases: few problems.
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Lemongrass
(Cymbopogon citratus, C. flexuosus) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (stem); (herb);
Market size: 50,000 hectares (world), 2,600 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: C. flexuosus 2000-2400 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, sandy loam, pH 5.5-6.5
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: C. flexuosus 5-10kg/ha (direct).
Planting: C. citratus grown from cuttings only. Sow C. flexuosus in spring. Heavy feeder. Oil quality of C. citratus highest at 18-24 months.
Field spacing: C. citratus 100cm between rows x 45cm within rows; broadcast C. flexuosus, or sow in rows 60-100cm apart.
Yield: C. citratus dry herb 4-6t/ha, oil 30-40kg/ha (years 1-5); C. flexuosus dry herb 10-15t/ha, 80kg/ha (years 1-5).
Pests: no data
Diseases: C. citratus himantia web blight, myriogenospora tangletop, helminthosperium eyespot, papularia.
Buyers want: high citral content.
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Sowing rate: 5g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow C. flexuosus in plugs 13-14 weeks before sale. C. citratus grown from cuttings only.
Seeds to finished plugs: 10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3-8 weeks.
Pests: spider mite, whitefly, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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Alfalfa
(Medicago sativa ) |
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Market
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Products: (seeds, leaf, herb); (herb, sprouts)
Market size: (excluding acreage planted for fodder): 12,000 hectares (world); 5,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices and acreage up
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Culture |
Seed density: 350 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained; pH 6.0-7.5
Crop duration: 1-4 years
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(herb) |
Sowing rate: 9-13kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring, broadcast or sow in rows, 15-30cm apart. Two or more cuts at bud stage possible; last cut 6 weeks before killing frost. Heavy potash and phosphorus feeder.
Yield: dry herb 8-10,000kg/ha (years 1-4).
Pests: weevil, leafminer, leafhopper, snout beetle
Diseases: verticillium wilt, leafspot, phytophthora root rot.
Buyers want: organic product.
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(sprouts) |
Planting: soak seeds overnight; drain, keep moist. Ready in 3-5 days.
Yield: 4kg(sprouts)/kg(seeds).
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Arnica
(A. montana, A. chamissonis) |
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Market
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Products: (flower, root); (flower);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 160 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume down
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Culture |
Seed density: 700-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, humus-rich, pH 7 (A. chamissonis), pH 4.5-6 (A. montana)
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 1-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing not recommended. Sow in seedflats or plugs. Sow A. montana 16-20 weeks before transplanting to field; sow A. chamissonis 12 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 15-60cm between rows x 15-20cm within rows.
Harvest: flower (years 2-5), root (year 3 or 4).
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: chlorosis (yellow leaves) in A. montana caused by alkaline soil.
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Sowing rate: 8-10g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in seedflats or plugs 20 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8 weeks.
Pests: few problems, whitefly occasionally
Diseases: few problems.
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Lemon Balm
(Melissa officinalis) |
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Market
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Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 75 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 2000 seeds/gram
Exposure: sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained clay or sandy loam, pH 6 to 7.5
Crop duration: 2-4 years
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Sowing rate: 7-9kg/ha (direct), 250-400g/ha (indirect, in plugs).
Planting: sowing in plugs in greenhouse in early spring till mid-summer is most common method; sow 6-8 weeks before transplanting to field. Direct sowing is not as common because weed control is more difficult; sow in early spring or late fall (to come up next spring).
Field spacing: 50-75cm between rows x 18-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry herb 5000kg/ha, fresh herb 10-25t/ha (years 1-3).
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: erisyphe powdery mildew, septoria blight, puccinia rust.
Buyers want: dry carefully to conserve oil in dried herb.
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Sowing rate: 3-5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in flats or plugs 11-14 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spidermite, thrip
Diseases: mildew.
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Basil
(Ocimum basilicum, and others ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf, herb); (herb); (oil);
Market size: 10,000 hectares (world), 1,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 500-1000 (O. gratissimum 2600, O. kilamandscharicum 2800, O. sanctum 1500-2500) seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: rich, well-drained
Crop duration: 1 year (O. basilicum), 1-3 years (others)
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Sowing rate: 20kg/ha (direct); 3-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in spring when nighttime temperatures exceed 10°C; or sow in flats or plugs 8 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 15-25cm within rows.
Yield: fresh herb 15,000kg/ha, dry herb 1,500-2,000kg/ha, oil 30kg/ha (year 1)
Pests: aphids, thrips
Diseases: O. basilicum varieties are highly susceptible to fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum) disease. Disease persists in soil for several years. Commercial field plantings should be sown with fusarium-tolerant Nufar F1. Hydroponic operations may choose fusarium-free varieties if equipment and facilities are free of fusarium (spreads by contaminated seeds and equipment). Other basil species (e.g. O. americanum and O. gratissimum) are fusarium-tolerant.
Buyers want: not less than 0.4% essential oil in dried product.
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Sowing rate: 3-4g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in final pots, or in plugs and later transplant to final pots. Nighttime temperature must not go below 10°C.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, thrips, aphids
Diseases: fusarium (see above).
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Bay Laurel
(Laurus nobilis ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (leaf);
Market size: 2,000 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 1 seeds/gram
Exposure: sheltered position in full or half sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, moist
Crop duration: 20-50 years
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Sowing rate: 30-60kg/ha
Planting: sow stratified seeds in beds or flats.
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: leaves dried flat for visual appearance.
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Sowing rate: 5kg/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or flats in March or April.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks (after stratification).
Plugs to saleable plants: 10 weeks to a year.
Pests: whitefly, scale, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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Borage
(Borago officinalis ) |
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Market
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Products: (seed, herb, flower, root); (herb, flower, root), (seed);
Market size: 5,000 hectares (world); 2,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, acreage up
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Culture |
Seed density: 50 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: best in well-drained, fertile, moist soil, but tolerates most soils, pH 5-8
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 5-17 kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in late spring in rows 45-90cm apart, 30-45cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 300kg/ha; fresh flower 1,000-5,000kg/ha; seed 90-450kg/ha.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: 24% gamma lineolenic acid content in seed oil.
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Sowing rate: 50-80g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots or plugs.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
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Burdock
(Arctium lappa) |
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Market
|
Products: (root, leaf); (root);
Market size: 3,000 hectares (world), 170 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 60-110 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or part sun
Soil: deep, loose, humus-rich, pH 6-8
Crop duration: 1-2 years
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Sowing rate: 4 kg/ha (direct), 1.5kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring. Or, sow in beds or plugs and transplant to field in spring. For use as fresh vegetable, dig first year roots when young and tender at 3-5 months. For dry root production, dig in fall of second year.
Field spacing: 45-90cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry root 2,000kg/ha (years 2 or 3).
Pests: few problems, grasshopper
Diseases: few problems.
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Sowing rate: 20g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs 9-10 weeks before sale.
Seeds to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Calendula
(C. officinalis) |
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Market
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Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 880 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 150 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained; can tolerate poor soil with low nitrogen.
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 3-9kg/ha (direct), 1kg/ha (indirect in plugs).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring or autumn; or sow in plugs 4-6 weeks before field planting. Seeds need light to germinate; cover seeds lightly or press in soil only.
Field spacing: 20-70cm between rows x 10-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 1-2,000kg/ha, fresh flower 6-9,000kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: blister-beetle, cabbage-looper, caterpillar, leafhopper
Diseases: leaf spot, aster-yellows.
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Sowing rate: 15g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or direct in pots 10-12 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 4-6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, aphid, thrip, mealybug
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Caraway
(Carum carvi) |
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Market
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Products: (seed); (seed)
Market size: 19,000 hectares (world), 2,500 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 350-400 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, pH 6-7.8.
Crop duration: 1-2 years (depending on variety)
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Sowing rate: 8-11 kg/ha.
Planting: sow standard biennial type direct in field late June or early July; harvest following year in August. Sow annual type in May (suited for warmer regions with 5-6 frost-free months). Sometimes sown with annual cover crops such as coriander, dill, mustard the first year.
Field spacing: 10-50cm between rows x 4-15cm within rows.
Yield: seed 600-3,000kg/ha, oil 4.5-7kg/ha (year 1 or 2, depending on variety).
Pests: leafhopper
Diseases: aster yellows.
Buyers want: seed minimum 3% oil, maximum 12% moisture.
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Catnip
(Nepeta cataria ) |
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Market
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Products: (herb, leaf);
Market size: 2,400 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 1500-1600 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or partial sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, sandy, pH 6.5
Crop duration: 2-5 years
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Sowing rate: 12 kg/ha (direct), 1kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring or late fall. Or, sow in plugs 8-10 weeks before field planting. Seed needs light to germinate; sow shallow 2-4mm deep.
Field spacing: 45-90cm between rows x 30-40cm within rows.
Harvest: leaf, herb (years 2-5).
Yield: dry herb 3-6t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
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Sowing rate: 3g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or seedflats 12-15 weeks before sale. Sow 2-4mm deep.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8-10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3-5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
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Chamomile
(Matricaria recutita, Chamaemelum nobile ) |
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Market
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Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 40,000 hectares (world), 4,800 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 10,000-18,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained, moist to dry
Crop duration: 1 year (M. recutita), 2-3 years (C. nobile)
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Sowing rate: 3-4 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect)
Planting: german (M. recutita) is sown direct in field in spring or fall. Fall sowings germinate following spring. Roman (C. nobile) is sown direct or indirect in plugs which are later planted in field. Surface sow only (needs light to germinate). Hand harvesting flowers problematic in areas where labour cost is high; mechanical harvesting still unproven.
Field spacing: 10-50cm between rows x 10-25cm within rows, or broadcast sown.
Yield: dry flower 350-500kg/ha (M. recutita; year 1), 600-1000 kg/ha (C. nobile; years 1-3).
Pests: cnephasia moth
Diseases: aster yellows.
Buyers want: 0.4% or more volatile oil.
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Sowing rate: 1g/1000plants.
Planting: german (M. recutita) not normally sold in pots; roman (C. nobile) and its varieties are sold in pots or plugs. Seeds need light to germinate; surface sow only.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4-6 weeks.
Pests: aphid, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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Chives
(Allium schoenoprasum, A. tuberosum ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf, flower); (leaf, flower);
Market size: 24,000 hectares (world), 3,200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 750 (A. schoenoprasum), 200-300 (A. tuberosum) seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, humus-rich
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 2-3 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring, or sow indirect in plugs 12-16 weeks before field planting. Field must be free of quackgrass otherwise harvests will be contaminated.
Field spacing: 30cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: fresh leaf 10-20t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: aphid
Diseases: puccinia rust, downy mildew.
Buyers want: good green colour (dry leaf).
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Sowing rate: 5-20g/1000plants (A. schoenoprasum), 50g/1000plants (A. tuberosum)
Planting: sow 10-15 seeds per plug or pot, or sow same amount direct in pots.
Seeds to saleable plants: 24-30 weeks.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12-16 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 11 weeks.
Pests: aphid, thrip
Diseases: few problems.
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Comfrey
(Symphytum officinale, S. x uplandicum) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf, root); (root, herb);
Market size: 1,700 hectares (world), 240 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 90-100 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or part sun
Soil: moist, wet or dry
Crop duration: 2-5 years
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Sowing rate: 600-900g/ha (indirect).
Planting: although seed can be sown direct, the high cost of seed dictates indirect sowing in plugs or seedbed and transplanting to field. Root cuttings (12,000/ha) of named cultivars (e.g. Bocking No. 14) recommended over seed.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 90cm within rows.
Yield: dry leaf 12t/ha (years 2-5), dry root 1,800kg/ha (year 3, 4 or 5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: comfrey rust.
Buyers want: low pyrrolizidine alkaloid content, particularly echimidine; leaf should be cut early to avoid alkaloid buildup.
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Sowing rate: 50-70g/1000plants.
Planting: sow S. officinale in plugs or seedflats 12-14 weeks before sale. S. x uplandicum and ornamental varieties are propagated by division or root cutting.
Seeds to saleable plants: 12 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, aphid
Diseases: comfrey rust.
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Coriander, Cilantro
(Coriandrum sativum) |
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Market
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Products: (seed); (herb); (seed, herb);
Market size: 600,000 hectares (world), 5,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 110-150 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun (seed), full or half sun (fresh herb)
Soil: deep, fertile, light or heavy, well-drained, pH 6.5-7.5
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 25 kg/ha (seed), 80 kg/ha (fresh herb).
Planting: for seed and seed oil production, sow direct in spring. For fresh herb (cilantro) and herb oil production sow early spring and fall; will bolt in hot weather.
Field spacing: 50-60cm between rows x 11-13cm between plants (seed), 20-25cm between rows x 8-10cm (fresh herb).
Yield: seed 900-1,500kg/ha, fresh herb 10-12t/ha, oil 1-9kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: thrip
Diseases: asters yellow, erysiphe powdery mildew, puccinia rust, pseudamonas, and sclerotina.
Buyers want: less than 12% moisture.
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Sowing rate: 200g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots; do not transplant – root disturbance causes plants to bolt early.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: aphid, thrip, mite, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Dandelion
(Taraxacum officinale) |
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Market
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Products: (root, herb); (leaf)
Market size: 7,000 hectares (world); 500 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 1200-1900 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: most soils
Crop duration: 2 years (root), 1-4 years (fresh leaf)
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Sowing rate: 1-3kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring or late summer. Fresh leaf gathered as vegetable spring, summer and fall. Herb for drying harvested spring or summer. Roots dug late fall.
Field spacing: 45cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: dry root 1100-1700kg/ha (year 2).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: water-soluble extractive not less than 30%.
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Dill
(Anethum graveolens, A. sowa ) |
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Market
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Products: (seed, herb); (leaf); (leaf, seed);
Market size: 37,000 hectares (world), 4,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices same, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 400-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, moderately rich, loose soil, pH 5.5-6.5
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 9-12 kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in spring.
Field spacing: 25-50cm between rows; thin to 10cm within rows for fresh herb production or 2-3cm within rows for seed production.
Yield: seed 600-900kg/ha, fresh herb 2500-5000kg/ha, dried herb 1000kg/ha, oil 50-110kg/ha.
Pests: aphid, tarnished plant bug
Diseases: powdery mildew, leafspot, aster yellows.
Buyers want: good green colour (dried leaf).
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Sowing rate: 15-40g/1000pots.
Planting: do not transplant; sow direct in pots, 8-20 seeds per pot.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: aphid
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Echinacea
(Echinacea purpurea, E. angustifolia, E. pallida ) |
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Market
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Products: (root, herb, flower, seed); (herb);
Market size: 16,000 hectares (world), 4,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices down, acreage up; market for E. purpurea herb is weak.
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Culture |
Seed density: 160-500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained, pH 6-7.5
Crop duration: 3-4 years
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Sowing rate: 14-18 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: E. purpurea seeds do not require pretreatment. Can be started in plugs and transplanted to the field, which is the preferred method, or can be sown direct in the field. Sow E. purpurea 100-120 days before field planting; sow E. angustifolia and E. pallida 150 days before planting. E. angustifolia and E. pallida germination benefits from pretreatment; stratify at 5°C for 4-12 weeks with light. Pretreatment with Ethrel (1 millimolar for 2 weeks), or with bleach (1% for 10 min.) improves E. angustifolia germination.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 20-45cm within rows.
Yield: E. purpurea herb 6,500-11,000kg/ha (years 2-4); E. purpurea root 1000kg/ha (year 4); E. angustifolia root 1100kg/ha (year 4); no data for E. pallida root.
Pests: leafhopper
Diseases: aster yellows (spread by leafhoppers), sclerotinia stem and root rot, botrytis.
Buyers want: certificate of botanical identity required for E. angustifolia; echinacoside 1.4% (roots).
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Sowing rate: 10g/1000plants.
Planting: sow 14 weeks (E. purpurea) to 22 weeks (E. angustifolia, E. pallida) before sale. Stratify or pretreat E. angustifolia and E. pallida seed before sowing (see above).
Seeds to finished plugs: 8-12 weeks (after pretreatment).
Plugs to saleable plants: 6-10 weeks.
Pests: few problems, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Elecampane
(Inula helenium ) |
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Market
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Products: (root); (root);
Market size: 800 hectares (world), 25 ha (North America).
Prospects: prices same, volume same
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Culture |
Seed density: 600-800 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: moist, deep, well-drained
Crop duration: 2 years.
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Sowing rate: 400-600g/ha (direct); 5g/1000plants (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing not recommended. Start in plugs 8 weeks before spring or late summer field planting.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 45cm within rows.
Yield: 2500kg/ha (year 2).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: erysiphe powdery mildew (late summer), ramularia leafspot, puccinia rust.
Buyers want: not less than 1.8% volatile oil, not more than 6-8% ash, not less than 27% water-soluble extractive, not more than 2% foreign matter.
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Sowing rate: 5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs, seedflats or seed beds. Germination in 4-7 days.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 2-6 weeks.
Pests: spider mite, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Fennel
(Foeniculum vulgare) |
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Market
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Products: (seed); (leaf, bulb); (herb);
Market size: 70,000 hectares (world), 7,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 200-300 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, deep, moderately fertile, pH 7-8.
Crop duration: 2-3 years (florence fennel, 1 year)
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Sowing rate: 4-6kg/ha (direct), 30g/1000plants (indirect).
Planting: sow sweet fennel direct; bronze direct or indirect; florence indirect.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: seed 1000-1600kg/ha (years 2-3), fresh herb 8-10t/ha (year 1-3), dried herb 1.5-2.5t/ha (year 1-3), seed oil 40-75kg/ha.
Pests: aphid, lygus tarnished plant bug
Diseases: sclerotinia stemrot, rhizoctonia damping-off, erwinia soft rot.
Buyers want: not less than 2-4% volatile oil.
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Sowing rate: 30g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots or in plugs. Does not transplant well; best to sow direct.
Seeds to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3 weeks.
Pests: aphid
Diseases: damping-off.
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Fenugreek
(Trigonella foenum-graecum) |
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Market
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Products: (seeds, leaf, herb); (herb, sprouts); (seed)
Market size: 90,000 hectares (world), 7,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 100 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, warm soil
Crop duration: 1 year.
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Sowing rate: 25-35kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in spring. Broadcast or in close rows.
Field spacing: 20cm between rows x 10-20cm within rows.
Yield: seed 700-900kg/ha, dried forage 2-10t/ha.
Pests: no data
Diseases: no data.
Buyers want: swelling index not less than 6, foreign matter not more than 2-5%, ash not more than 5-6% (seed).
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Feverfew
(Tanacetum parthenium) |
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Market
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Products: (herb);
Market size: 1,300 hectares (world), 160 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume down
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Culture |
Seed density: 7,500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained, dry soil
Crop duration: 1-2 years
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Sowing rate: 1-1.5 kg/ha (direct); 0.5g/1000plants.
Planting: plugs preferred over direct sowing because seeds very small. Sow plugs 8 weeks before spring planting date. Don't allow to go to seed to avoid winterkill. Frequent fertilization with low nitrogen fertilizer is beneficial. Long days trigger flowering. Short lived perennial; some growers treat as annual.
Field spacing: 20-90cm between rows x 10-20cm within rows.
Yield: 300-5000kg/ha (years 1-2).
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: minimum 0.4-0.8% parthenolide.
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Sowing rate: 0.5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow 14-16 weeks before sales in flats or plug trays.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6-8 weeks.
Pests: aphid, whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
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Scented Geranium
(Pelargonium spp. ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (leaf);
Market size: 4,000 hectares (world), 400 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 360-450 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, neutral to alkaline
Crop duration: 1 year temperate areas, 3-5 year in tropical areas.d o Planting: all commercially important varieties are propagated by cuttings. Plugs planted in spring after last frost date. FieldSpacing: 60-100cm between rows x 20-50cm within rows. Yield: fresh leaf 13-30t/ha, oil 13-17kg/ha (years 1-5). PestsDiseases: aphid, caterpillar / alternaria leaf spot.
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Seeds/ |
Planting: all commercially important varieties are propagated by cuttings. Plugs planted in spring after last frost date.
Field spacing: 60-100cm between rows x 20-50cm within rows.
Yield: fresh leaf 13-30t/ha, oil 13-17kg/ha (years 1-5).
Pests: aphid, caterpillar
Diseases: alternaria leaf spot.
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Sowing rate: 30-80g/1000 plants.
Planting: commercial propagation is by cutting only.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6-8 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, geranium and peach aphid, mite, mealybug, scale
Diseases: various leaf spots including xanthomonas, alternaria, botrytis.
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Gingko
(Ginkgo biloba ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (seed);
Market size: 5,000 hectares (world), 600 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 1 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: rich, well-drained, moist soil
Crop duration: 20-50+ years
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Sowing rate: 2-4kg/hectare.
Planting: seeds require stratification, 1-2 months warm, then 1-2 months cold, then sow in spring. Common nursery practice is to sow without stratification in outdoor seed beds in fall. Seedlings shaded for 2-3 years and fertilized with manure. Seedlings transplanted to permanent location when 7-8 years old. Trees kept short (2m) and spaced close (2-3m) in commercial plantations for medicinal leaf production; otherwise allowed to grow higher and spaced further for seed production. Slow growing. Leaves harvested in early fall as they begin to turn yellow; dried in sun. Fruits harvested late fall, seeds cleaned and roasted.
Field spacing: 3-5m apart (2-3m within rows for leaf production).
Yield: no data (leaf years 8-50, seed years 20-50).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: tolerates pollution.
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Sowing rate: 2-4kg/1000 plants.
Planting: stratify seed warm (1-2 months) followed by cold (1-2 months). Sow in deep plugs. Keep lightly shaded.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks to 1 year.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8 weeks (10cm pots), 2-5 years (larger plants).
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Ginseng
(Panax quinquefolius, P. ginseng; Eleutherococcus senticosus) |
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Market
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Products: (root)
Market size: Panax 70,000 hectares (world), 7,400 ha (North America)
Prospects: Panax prices down, volume up. Prospects for woodsgrown Panax much better than shadecloth grown.
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Culture |
Seed density: Panax 15; Eleutherococcus 100 seeds/gram
Exposure: Panax 70% shade; Eleutherococcus 30-50% shade
Soil: well-drained, sandy or clay loam, in raised beds, pH 5.5-6.0
Crop duration: Panax 3-4 years (shadecloth), 4-8 years (woodsgrown); Eleutherococcus 6-12 years
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Sowing rate: 40-100 kg/ha (shadecloth), 10-20 kg/ha (woodsgrown).
Planting: Panax seeds stratified one year. Sow stratified seeds in seedbeds and transplant seedlings to raised beds in years 1-2, or sow direct in raised beds. Mulch with straw. Remove shadecloth over winter. Eleutherococcus seeds need at least cycles of warm-cold stratification; best results obtained when sown in flats in fall and left out over winter under mulch.
Field spacing: Panax 15-20cm between rows x 15-20cm within rows, further apart in woodsgrown plantings; Eleutherococcus 60-100cm apart.
Yield: Panax (shadecloth) 3400kg/ha (years 3-4).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: Panax alternaria leaf blight, rhizoctonia wilt, phytophthora, powdery mildew; Eleutherococcus few problems.
Buyers want: ginsenosides not less than 1.5-2%, ash not more than 4-8%.
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Sowing rate: Panax 150g/1000 plants; Eleutherococcus 250g/1000plants.
Planting: sow stratified Panax seeds in deep plugs, 2-4 seeds per plug, or sow in seed flats. Provide shade, keep cool and well ventilated.
Seeds to finished plugs: Panax 6 months (after stratification).
Plugs to saleable plants: Panax 1 year.
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: Panax alternaria, rhizoctonia.
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Goldenseal
(Hydrastis canadensis) |
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Market
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Products: (root);
Market size: 17,000 hectares (world), 7,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices down, volume up. Majority of market supplied by wildcrafted material, but wild stocks are becoming depleted and now listed on CITES.
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Culture |
Seed density: 50-55 seeds/gram
Exposure: 50-75% Shade
Soil: well-drained, deep, fertile soil, pH 5.5-6.5, in raised beds or on gentle slope.
Crop duration: 3-6 years
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Sowing rate: 10kg/ha (direct), 100g/1000 plants (indirect); rootlets 100,000/ha.
Planting: growers prefer rootlets over seeds because they are more reliable and quicker to harvestable size (3 years); however, seed quality has improved recently and cost of seeds is much less than rootlets. Seeds take 5-6 years to get harvestable roots. Seeds must not dry out; must be sown immediately after harvest in late summer to come up following spring. Avoid straw mulch and fertilize lightly.
Field spacing: 15-40cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: 900-2300kg/ha (year 3-6).
Pests: slugs
Diseases: alternaria, phytophthora, rhizoctonia, botrytis leafspot, fusarium.
Buyers want: min. alkaloids 3.5%.
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Sowing rate: seed 100g/1000plants, rootlets 300-1000/1000 plants.
Planting: for potted plant production, best to start with rootlets. Pot up rootlets 4 weeks before sale. Provide cool, shaded, and well-ventilated conditions; will not tolerate full sun and high humidity.
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: alternaria and other diseases common in potted plants in greenhouses.
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Lavender
(Lavandula angustifolia, L. x intermedia) |
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Market
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Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 9,000 hectares (world), 1,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 850-1300 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained, deep, not too rich, pH 6.5-7.5
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 3-6kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: lavandins (L. x intermedia; e.g. 'Provence' and 'Grosso'), best for commercial flower and oil production, are propagated vegetatively only. Only english types are available in seed form, but seed grown material may not be uniform enough for field production. Direct sowing not recommended; germination is too slow (15-30 days). Sow in seedflats 12-16 weeks before outdoor planting; transplant to plugs at 4-6 weeks, then transplant to field.
Field spacing: 60-120cm between rows x 25-120cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 500-1500kg/ha (years 2-5), oil 8-32kg/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: caterpillar, nematode
Diseases: phoma scab, septoria leaf spot, armillaria root rot.
Buyers want: 1.3% volatile oil or higher, good colour.
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Sowing rate: 5-10g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow 20-26 weeks before sale. Germination of english types (L. angustifolia) is frequently below 50%; scarification or freezing of seedflat can sometimes improve germination.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12-16 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8-10 weeks.
Pests: mealybug, whitefly, spider mite, scale
Diseases: few problems.
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Lemongrass
(Cymbopogon citratus, C. flexuosus) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (stem); (herb);
Market size: 50,000 hectares (world), 2,600 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: C. flexuosus 2000-2400 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, sandy loam, pH 5.5-6.5
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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|
Sowing rate: C. flexuosus 5-10kg/ha (direct).
Planting: C. citratus grown from cuttings only. Sow C. flexuosus in spring. Heavy feeder. Oil quality of C. citratus highest at 18-24 months.
Field spacing: C. citratus 100cm between rows x 45cm within rows; broadcast C. flexuosus, or sow in rows 60-100cm apart.
Yield: C. citratus dry herb 4-6t/ha, oil 30-40kg/ha (years 1-5); C. flexuosus dry herb 10-15t/ha, 80kg/ha (years 1-5).
Pests: no data
Diseases: C. citratus himantia web blight, myriogenospora tangletop, helminthosperium eyespot, papularia.
Buyers want: high citral content.
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Sowing rate: 5g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow C. flexuosus in plugs 13-14 weeks before sale. C. citratus grown from cuttings only.
Seeds to finished plugs: 10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3-8 weeks.
Pests: spider mite, whitefly, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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| |
Licorice
(Glycyrrhiza spp. ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (root);
Market size: 45,000 hectares (world), 480 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices down, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 400-600 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: deep, rich, moist, sandy, slightly alkaline, pH 7.3-7.8
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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|
Sowing rate: 3-4 kg/ha (direct), 5-10g/1000 plants (indirect).
Planting: soak seeds 2-3 hours in 30°C water or scarify before planting to weaken hard seed coat. Sow direct in spring or in deep plugs 12-16 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 70-90cm between rows x 45-90cm within rows.
Yield: G. glabra dry root 10-20t/ha (year 3-5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: uromyces rust, cercospora blight.
Buyers want: minimum 4% glycyrrhizinic acid, minimum 20% water soluble extractive.
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Sowing rate: 5-10g/1000plants.
Planting: soak seed in warm water (30°C) for 2-3 hours or scarify before sowing. Sow in flats or deep plugs 22-26 weeks before sale. Highly susceptible to damping-off; preventative application of damping-off control recommended.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12-16 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: damping-off.
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| |
Alfalfa
(Medicago sativa ) |
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Market
|
Products: (seeds, leaf, herb); (herb, sprouts)
Market size: (excluding acreage planted for fodder): 12,000 hectares (world); 5,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices and acreage up
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Culture |
Seed density: 350 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained; pH 6.0-7.5
Crop duration: 1-4 years
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|
(herb) |
Sowing rate: 9-13kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring, broadcast or sow in rows, 15-30cm apart. Two or more cuts at bud stage possible; last cut 6 weeks before killing frost. Heavy potash and phosphorus feeder.
Yield: dry herb 8-10,000kg/ha (years 1-4).
Pests: weevil, leafminer, leafhopper, snout beetle
Diseases: verticillium wilt, leafspot, phytophthora root rot.
Buyers want: organic product.
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(sprouts) |
Planting: soak seeds overnight; drain, keep moist. Ready in 3-5 days.
Yield: 4kg(sprouts)/kg(seeds).
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| |
Arnica
(A. montana, A. chamissonis) |
|
Market
|
Products: (flower, root); (flower);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 160 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume down
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 700-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, humus-rich, pH 7 (A. chamissonis), pH 4.5-6 (A. montana)
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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|
Sowing rate: 1-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing not recommended. Sow in seedflats or plugs. Sow A. montana 16-20 weeks before transplanting to field; sow A. chamissonis 12 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 15-60cm between rows x 15-20cm within rows.
Harvest: flower (years 2-5), root (year 3 or 4).
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: chlorosis (yellow leaves) in A. montana caused by alkaline soil.
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|
Sowing rate: 8-10g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in seedflats or plugs 20 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8 weeks.
Pests: few problems, whitefly occasionally
Diseases: few problems.
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| |
Lemon Balm
(Melissa officinalis) |
|
Market
|
Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 75 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 2000 seeds/gram
Exposure: sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained clay or sandy loam, pH 6 to 7.5
Crop duration: 2-4 years
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|
Sowing rate: 7-9kg/ha (direct), 250-400g/ha (indirect, in plugs).
Planting: sowing in plugs in greenhouse in early spring till mid-summer is most common method; sow 6-8 weeks before transplanting to field. Direct sowing is not as common because weed control is more difficult; sow in early spring or late fall (to come up next spring).
Field spacing: 50-75cm between rows x 18-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry herb 5000kg/ha, fresh herb 10-25t/ha (years 1-3).
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: erisyphe powdery mildew, septoria blight, puccinia rust.
Buyers want: dry carefully to conserve oil in dried herb.
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|
|
Sowing rate: 3-5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in flats or plugs 11-14 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spidermite, thrip
Diseases: mildew.
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| |
Basil
(Ocimum basilicum, and others ) |
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Market
|
Products: (leaf, herb); (herb); (oil);
Market size: 10,000 hectares (world), 1,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 500-1000 (O. gratissimum 2600, O. kilamandscharicum 2800, O. sanctum 1500-2500) seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: rich, well-drained
Crop duration: 1 year (O. basilicum), 1-3 years (others)
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|
|
Sowing rate: 20kg/ha (direct); 3-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in spring when nighttime temperatures exceed 10°C; or sow in flats or plugs 8 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 15-25cm within rows.
Yield: fresh herb 15,000kg/ha, dry herb 1,500-2,000kg/ha, oil 30kg/ha (year 1)
Pests: aphids, thrips
Diseases: O. basilicum varieties are highly susceptible to fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum) disease. Disease persists in soil for several years. Commercial field plantings should be sown with fusarium-tolerant Nufar F1. Hydroponic operations may choose fusarium-free varieties if equipment and facilities are free of fusarium (spreads by contaminated seeds and equipment). Other basil species (e.g. O. americanum and O. gratissimum) are fusarium-tolerant.
Buyers want: not less than 0.4% essential oil in dried product.
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|
|
Sowing rate: 3-4g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in final pots, or in plugs and later transplant to final pots. Nighttime temperature must not go below 10°C.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, thrips, aphids
Diseases: fusarium (see above).
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| |
Bay Laurel
(Laurus nobilis ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (leaf); (leaf);
Market size: 2,000 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 1 seeds/gram
Exposure: sheltered position in full or half sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, moist
Crop duration: 20-50 years
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|
Sowing rate: 30-60kg/ha
Planting: sow stratified seeds in beds or flats.
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: leaves dried flat for visual appearance.
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|
|
Sowing rate: 5kg/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or flats in March or April.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks (after stratification).
Plugs to saleable plants: 10 weeks to a year.
Pests: whitefly, scale, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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| |
Borage
(Borago officinalis ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (seed, herb, flower, root); (herb, flower, root), (seed);
Market size: 5,000 hectares (world); 2,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, acreage up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 50 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: best in well-drained, fertile, moist soil, but tolerates most soils, pH 5-8
Crop duration: 1 year
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|
|
Sowing rate: 5-17 kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in late spring in rows 45-90cm apart, 30-45cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 300kg/ha; fresh flower 1,000-5,000kg/ha; seed 90-450kg/ha.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: 24% gamma lineolenic acid content in seed oil.
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|
Sowing rate: 50-80g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots or plugs.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
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| |
Burdock
(Arctium lappa) |
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Market
|
Products: (root, leaf); (root);
Market size: 3,000 hectares (world), 170 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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|
Culture |
Seed density: 60-110 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or part sun
Soil: deep, loose, humus-rich, pH 6-8
Crop duration: 1-2 years
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|
Sowing rate: 4 kg/ha (direct), 1.5kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring. Or, sow in beds or plugs and transplant to field in spring. For use as fresh vegetable, dig first year roots when young and tender at 3-5 months. For dry root production, dig in fall of second year.
Field spacing: 45-90cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry root 2,000kg/ha (years 2 or 3).
Pests: few problems, grasshopper
Diseases: few problems.
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|
|
Sowing rate: 20g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs 9-10 weeks before sale.
Seeds to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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| |
Calendula
(C. officinalis) |
|
Market
|
Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 880 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 150 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained; can tolerate poor soil with low nitrogen.
Crop duration: 1 year
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|
|
Sowing rate: 3-9kg/ha (direct), 1kg/ha (indirect in plugs).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring or autumn; or sow in plugs 4-6 weeks before field planting. Seeds need light to germinate; cover seeds lightly or press in soil only.
Field spacing: 20-70cm between rows x 10-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 1-2,000kg/ha, fresh flower 6-9,000kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: blister-beetle, cabbage-looper, caterpillar, leafhopper
Diseases: leaf spot, aster-yellows.
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|
|
Sowing rate: 15g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or direct in pots 10-12 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 4-6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, aphid, thrip, mealybug
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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| |
Caraway
(Carum carvi) |
|
Market
|
Products: (seed); (seed)
Market size: 19,000 hectares (world), 2,500 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 350-400 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, pH 6-7.8.
Crop duration: 1-2 years (depending on variety)
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|
|
Sowing rate: 8-11 kg/ha.
Planting: sow standard biennial type direct in field late June or early July; harvest following year in August. Sow annual type in May (suited for warmer regions with 5-6 frost-free months). Sometimes sown with annual cover crops such as coriander, dill, mustard the first year.
Field spacing: 10-50cm between rows x 4-15cm within rows.
Yield: seed 600-3,000kg/ha, oil 4.5-7kg/ha (year 1 or 2, depending on variety).
Pests: leafhopper
Diseases: aster yellows.
Buyers want: seed minimum 3% oil, maximum 12% moisture.
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| |
Catnip
(Nepeta cataria ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (herb, leaf);
Market size: 2,400 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 1500-1600 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or partial sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, sandy, pH 6.5
Crop duration: 2-5 years
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|
|
Sowing rate: 12 kg/ha (direct), 1kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring or late fall. Or, sow in plugs 8-10 weeks before field planting. Seed needs light to germinate; sow shallow 2-4mm deep.
Field spacing: 45-90cm between rows x 30-40cm within rows.
Harvest: leaf, herb (years 2-5).
Yield: dry herb 3-6t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
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|
|
Sowing rate: 3g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or seedflats 12-15 weeks before sale. Sow 2-4mm deep.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8-10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3-5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
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| |
Chamomile
(Matricaria recutita, Chamaemelum nobile ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 40,000 hectares (world), 4,800 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 10,000-18,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained, moist to dry
Crop duration: 1 year (M. recutita), 2-3 years (C. nobile)
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Sowing rate: 3-4 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect)
Planting: german (M. recutita) is sown direct in field in spring or fall. Fall sowings germinate following spring. Roman (C. nobile) is sown direct or indirect in plugs which are later planted in field. Surface sow only (needs light to germinate). Hand harvesting flowers problematic in areas where labour cost is high; mechanical harvesting still unproven.
Field spacing: 10-50cm between rows x 10-25cm within rows, or broadcast sown.
Yield: dry flower 350-500kg/ha (M. recutita; year 1), 600-1000 kg/ha (C. nobile; years 1-3).
Pests: cnephasia moth
Diseases: aster yellows.
Buyers want: 0.4% or more volatile oil.
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|
Sowing rate: 1g/1000plants.
Planting: german (M. recutita) not normally sold in pots; roman (C. nobile) and its varieties are sold in pots or plugs. Seeds need light to germinate; surface sow only.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4-6 weeks.
Pests: aphid, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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| |
Chives
(Allium schoenoprasum, A. tuberosum ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (leaf, flower); (leaf, flower);
Market size: 24,000 hectares (world), 3,200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 750 (A. schoenoprasum), 200-300 (A. tuberosum) seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, humus-rich
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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|
|
Sowing rate: 2-3 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring, or sow indirect in plugs 12-16 weeks before field planting. Field must be free of quackgrass otherwise harvests will be contaminated.
Field spacing: 30cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: fresh leaf 10-20t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: aphid
Diseases: puccinia rust, downy mildew.
Buyers want: good green colour (dry leaf).
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|
|
Sowing rate: 5-20g/1000plants (A. schoenoprasum), 50g/1000plants (A. tuberosum)
Planting: sow 10-15 seeds per plug or pot, or sow same amount direct in pots.
Seeds to saleable plants: 24-30 weeks.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12-16 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 11 weeks.
Pests: aphid, thrip
Diseases: few problems.
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| |
Comfrey
(Symphytum officinale, S. x uplandicum) |
|
Market
|
Products: (leaf, root); (root, herb);
Market size: 1,700 hectares (world), 240 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 90-100 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or part sun
Soil: moist, wet or dry
Crop duration: 2-5 years
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|
|
Sowing rate: 600-900g/ha (indirect).
Planting: although seed can be sown direct, the high cost of seed dictates indirect sowing in plugs or seedbed and transplanting to field. Root cuttings (12,000/ha) of named cultivars (e.g. Bocking No. 14) recommended over seed.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 90cm within rows.
Yield: dry leaf 12t/ha (years 2-5), dry root 1,800kg/ha (year 3, 4 or 5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: comfrey rust.
Buyers want: low pyrrolizidine alkaloid content, particularly echimidine; leaf should be cut early to avoid alkaloid buildup.
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|
|
Sowing rate: 50-70g/1000plants.
Planting: sow S. officinale in plugs or seedflats 12-14 weeks before sale. S. x uplandicum and ornamental varieties are propagated by division or root cutting.
Seeds to saleable plants: 12 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, aphid
Diseases: comfrey rust.
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| |
Coriander, Cilantro
(Coriandrum sativum) |
|
Market
|
Products: (seed); (herb); (seed, herb);
Market size: 600,000 hectares (world), 5,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 110-150 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun (seed), full or half sun (fresh herb)
Soil: deep, fertile, light or heavy, well-drained, pH 6.5-7.5
Crop duration: 1 year
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|
|
Sowing rate: 25 kg/ha (seed), 80 kg/ha (fresh herb).
Planting: for seed and seed oil production, sow direct in spring. For fresh herb (cilantro) and herb oil production sow early spring and fall; will bolt in hot weather.
Field spacing: 50-60cm between rows x 11-13cm between plants (seed), 20-25cm between rows x 8-10cm (fresh herb).
Yield: seed 900-1,500kg/ha, fresh herb 10-12t/ha, oil 1-9kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: thrip
Diseases: asters yellow, erysiphe powdery mildew, puccinia rust, pseudamonas, and sclerotina.
Buyers want: less than 12% moisture.
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|
|
Sowing rate: 200g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots; do not transplant – root disturbance causes plants to bolt early.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: aphid, thrip, mite, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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| |
Dandelion
(Taraxacum officinale) |
|
Market
|
Products: (root, herb); (leaf)
Market size: 7,000 hectares (world); 500 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 1200-1900 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: most soils
Crop duration: 2 years (root), 1-4 years (fresh leaf)
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|
|
Sowing rate: 1-3kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring or late summer. Fresh leaf gathered as vegetable spring, summer and fall. Herb for drying harvested spring or summer. Roots dug late fall.
Field spacing: 45cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: dry root 1100-1700kg/ha (year 2).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: water-soluble extractive not less than 30%.
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| |
Dill
(Anethum graveolens, A. sowa ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (seed, herb); (leaf); (leaf, seed);
Market size: 37,000 hectares (world), 4,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices same, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 400-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, moderately rich, loose soil, pH 5.5-6.5
Crop duration: 1 year
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 9-12 kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in spring.
Field spacing: 25-50cm between rows; thin to 10cm within rows for fresh herb production or 2-3cm within rows for seed production.
Yield: seed 600-900kg/ha, fresh herb 2500-5000kg/ha, dried herb 1000kg/ha, oil 50-110kg/ha.
Pests: aphid, tarnished plant bug
Diseases: powdery mildew, leafspot, aster yellows.
Buyers want: good green colour (dried leaf).
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|
|
Sowing rate: 15-40g/1000pots.
Planting: do not transplant; sow direct in pots, 8-20 seeds per pot.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: aphid
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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| |
Echinacea
(Echinacea purpurea, E. angustifolia, E. pallida ) |
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Market
|
Products: (root, herb, flower, seed); (herb);
Market size: 16,000 hectares (world), 4,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices down, acreage up; market for E. purpurea herb is weak.
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 160-500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained, pH 6-7.5
Crop duration: 3-4 years
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|
|
Sowing rate: 14-18 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: E. purpurea seeds do not require pretreatment. Can be started in plugs and transplanted to the field, which is the preferred method, or can be sown direct in the field. Sow E. purpurea 100-120 days before field planting; sow E. angustifolia and E. pallida 150 days before planting. E. angustifolia and E. pallida germination benefits from pretreatment; stratify at 5°C for 4-12 weeks with light. Pretreatment with Ethrel (1 millimolar for 2 weeks), or with bleach (1% for 10 min.) improves E. angustifolia germination.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 20-45cm within rows.
Yield: E. purpurea herb 6,500-11,000kg/ha (years 2-4); E. purpurea root 1000kg/ha (year 4); E. angustifolia root 1100kg/ha (year 4); no data for E. pallida root.
Pests: leafhopper
Diseases: aster yellows (spread by leafhoppers), sclerotinia stem and root rot, botrytis.
Buyers want: certificate of botanical identity required for E. angustifolia; echinacoside 1.4% (roots).
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|
Sowing rate: 10g/1000plants.
Planting: sow 14 weeks (E. purpurea) to 22 weeks (E. angustifolia, E. pallida) before sale. Stratify or pretreat E. angustifolia and E. pallida seed before sowing (see above).
Seeds to finished plugs: 8-12 weeks (after pretreatment).
Plugs to saleable plants: 6-10 weeks.
Pests: few problems, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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| |
Elecampane
(Inula helenium ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (root); (root);
Market size: 800 hectares (world), 25 ha (North America).
Prospects: prices same, volume same
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 600-800 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: moist, deep, well-drained
Crop duration: 2 years.
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|
|
Sowing rate: 400-600g/ha (direct); 5g/1000plants (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing not recommended. Start in plugs 8 weeks before spring or late summer field planting.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 45cm within rows.
Yield: 2500kg/ha (year 2).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: erysiphe powdery mildew (late summer), ramularia leafspot, puccinia rust.
Buyers want: not less than 1.8% volatile oil, not more than 6-8% ash, not less than 27% water-soluble extractive, not more than 2% foreign matter.
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|
|
Sowing rate: 5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs, seedflats or seed beds. Germination in 4-7 days.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 2-6 weeks.
Pests: spider mite, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Fennel
(Foeniculum vulgare) |
|
Market
|
Products: (seed); (leaf, bulb); (herb);
Market size: 70,000 hectares (world), 7,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 200-300 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, deep, moderately fertile, pH 7-8.
Crop duration: 2-3 years (florence fennel, 1 year)
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Sowing rate: 4-6kg/ha (direct), 30g/1000plants (indirect).
Planting: sow sweet fennel direct; bronze direct or indirect; florence indirect.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: seed 1000-1600kg/ha (years 2-3), fresh herb 8-10t/ha (year 1-3), dried herb 1.5-2.5t/ha (year 1-3), seed oil 40-75kg/ha.
Pests: aphid, lygus tarnished plant bug
Diseases: sclerotinia stemrot, rhizoctonia damping-off, erwinia soft rot.
Buyers want: not less than 2-4% volatile oil.
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Sowing rate: 30g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots or in plugs. Does not transplant well; best to sow direct.
Seeds to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3 weeks.
Pests: aphid
Diseases: damping-off.
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Fenugreek
(Trigonella foenum-graecum) |
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Market
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Products: (seeds, leaf, herb); (herb, sprouts); (seed)
Market size: 90,000 hectares (world), 7,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 100 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, warm soil
Crop duration: 1 year.
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Sowing rate: 25-35kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in spring. Broadcast or in close rows.
Field spacing: 20cm between rows x 10-20cm within rows.
Yield: seed 700-900kg/ha, dried forage 2-10t/ha.
Pests: no data
Diseases: no data.
Buyers want: swelling index not less than 6, foreign matter not more than 2-5%, ash not more than 5-6% (seed).
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Feverfew
(Tanacetum parthenium) |
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Market
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Products: (herb);
Market size: 1,300 hectares (world), 160 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume down
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Culture |
Seed density: 7,500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained, dry soil
Crop duration: 1-2 years
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Sowing rate: 1-1.5 kg/ha (direct); 0.5g/1000plants.
Planting: plugs preferred over direct sowing because seeds very small. Sow plugs 8 weeks before spring planting date. Don't allow to go to seed to avoid winterkill. Frequent fertilization with low nitrogen fertilizer is beneficial. Long days trigger flowering. Short lived perennial; some growers treat as annual.
Field spacing: 20-90cm between rows x 10-20cm within rows.
Yield: 300-5000kg/ha (years 1-2).
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: minimum 0.4-0.8% parthenolide.
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Sowing rate: 0.5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow 14-16 weeks before sales in flats or plug trays.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6-8 weeks.
Pests: aphid, whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
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Scented Geranium
(Pelargonium spp. ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (leaf);
Market size: 4,000 hectares (world), 400 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 360-450 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, neutral to alkaline
Crop duration: 1 year temperate areas, 3-5 year in tropical areas.d o Planting: all commercially important varieties are propagated by cuttings. Plugs planted in spring after last frost date. FieldSpacing: 60-100cm between rows x 20-50cm within rows. Yield: fresh leaf 13-30t/ha, oil 13-17kg/ha (years 1-5). PestsDiseases: aphid, caterpillar / alternaria leaf spot.
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Seeds/ |
Planting: all commercially important varieties are propagated by cuttings. Plugs planted in spring after last frost date.
Field spacing: 60-100cm between rows x 20-50cm within rows.
Yield: fresh leaf 13-30t/ha, oil 13-17kg/ha (years 1-5).
Pests: aphid, caterpillar
Diseases: alternaria leaf spot.
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Sowing rate: 30-80g/1000 plants.
Planting: commercial propagation is by cutting only.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6-8 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, geranium and peach aphid, mite, mealybug, scale
Diseases: various leaf spots including xanthomonas, alternaria, botrytis.
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Gingko
(Ginkgo biloba ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (seed);
Market size: 5,000 hectares (world), 600 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 1 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: rich, well-drained, moist soil
Crop duration: 20-50+ years
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Sowing rate: 2-4kg/hectare.
Planting: seeds require stratification, 1-2 months warm, then 1-2 months cold, then sow in spring. Common nursery practice is to sow without stratification in outdoor seed beds in fall. Seedlings shaded for 2-3 years and fertilized with manure. Seedlings transplanted to permanent location when 7-8 years old. Trees kept short (2m) and spaced close (2-3m) in commercial plantations for medicinal leaf production; otherwise allowed to grow higher and spaced further for seed production. Slow growing. Leaves harvested in early fall as they begin to turn yellow; dried in sun. Fruits harvested late fall, seeds cleaned and roasted.
Field spacing: 3-5m apart (2-3m within rows for leaf production).
Yield: no data (leaf years 8-50, seed years 20-50).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: tolerates pollution.
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Sowing rate: 2-4kg/1000 plants.
Planting: stratify seed warm (1-2 months) followed by cold (1-2 months). Sow in deep plugs. Keep lightly shaded.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks to 1 year.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8 weeks (10cm pots), 2-5 years (larger plants).
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Ginseng
(Panax quinquefolius, P. ginseng; Eleutherococcus senticosus) |
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Market
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Products: (root)
Market size: Panax 70,000 hectares (world), 7,400 ha (North America)
Prospects: Panax prices down, volume up. Prospects for woodsgrown Panax much better than shadecloth grown.
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Culture |
Seed density: Panax 15; Eleutherococcus 100 seeds/gram
Exposure: Panax 70% shade; Eleutherococcus 30-50% shade
Soil: well-drained, sandy or clay loam, in raised beds, pH 5.5-6.0
Crop duration: Panax 3-4 years (shadecloth), 4-8 years (woodsgrown); Eleutherococcus 6-12 years
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Sowing rate: 40-100 kg/ha (shadecloth), 10-20 kg/ha (woodsgrown).
Planting: Panax seeds stratified one year. Sow stratified seeds in seedbeds and transplant seedlings to raised beds in years 1-2, or sow direct in raised beds. Mulch with straw. Remove shadecloth over winter. Eleutherococcus seeds need at least cycles of warm-cold stratification; best results obtained when sown in flats in fall and left out over winter under mulch.
Field spacing: Panax 15-20cm between rows x 15-20cm within rows, further apart in woodsgrown plantings; Eleutherococcus 60-100cm apart.
Yield: Panax (shadecloth) 3400kg/ha (years 3-4).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: Panax alternaria leaf blight, rhizoctonia wilt, phytophthora, powdery mildew; Eleutherococcus few problems.
Buyers want: ginsenosides not less than 1.5-2%, ash not more than 4-8%.
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Sowing rate: Panax 150g/1000 plants; Eleutherococcus 250g/1000plants.
Planting: sow stratified Panax seeds in deep plugs, 2-4 seeds per plug, or sow in seed flats. Provide shade, keep cool and well ventilated.
Seeds to finished plugs: Panax 6 months (after stratification).
Plugs to saleable plants: Panax 1 year.
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: Panax alternaria, rhizoctonia.
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Goldenseal
(Hydrastis canadensis) |
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Market
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Products: (root);
Market size: 17,000 hectares (world), 7,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices down, volume up. Majority of market supplied by wildcrafted material, but wild stocks are becoming depleted and now listed on CITES.
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Culture |
Seed density: 50-55 seeds/gram
Exposure: 50-75% Shade
Soil: well-drained, deep, fertile soil, pH 5.5-6.5, in raised beds or on gentle slope.
Crop duration: 3-6 years
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Sowing rate: 10kg/ha (direct), 100g/1000 plants (indirect); rootlets 100,000/ha.
Planting: growers prefer rootlets over seeds because they are more reliable and quicker to harvestable size (3 years); however, seed quality has improved recently and cost of seeds is much less than rootlets. Seeds take 5-6 years to get harvestable roots. Seeds must not dry out; must be sown immediately after harvest in late summer to come up following spring. Avoid straw mulch and fertilize lightly.
Field spacing: 15-40cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: 900-2300kg/ha (year 3-6).
Pests: slugs
Diseases: alternaria, phytophthora, rhizoctonia, botrytis leafspot, fusarium.
Buyers want: min. alkaloids 3.5%.
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Sowing rate: seed 100g/1000plants, rootlets 300-1000/1000 plants.
Planting: for potted plant production, best to start with rootlets. Pot up rootlets 4 weeks before sale. Provide cool, shaded, and well-ventilated conditions; will not tolerate full sun and high humidity.
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: alternaria and other diseases common in potted plants in greenhouses.
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Lavender
(Lavandula angustifolia, L. x intermedia) |
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Market
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Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 9,000 hectares (world), 1,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 850-1300 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained, deep, not too rich, pH 6.5-7.5
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 3-6kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: lavandins (L. x intermedia; e.g. 'Provence' and 'Grosso'), best for commercial flower and oil production, are propagated vegetatively only. Only english types are available in seed form, but seed grown material may not be uniform enough for field production. Direct sowing not recommended; germination is too slow (15-30 days). Sow in seedflats 12-16 weeks before outdoor planting; transplant to plugs at 4-6 weeks, then transplant to field.
Field spacing: 60-120cm between rows x 25-120cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 500-1500kg/ha (years 2-5), oil 8-32kg/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: caterpillar, nematode
Diseases: phoma scab, septoria leaf spot, armillaria root rot.
Buyers want: 1.3% volatile oil or higher, good colour.
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Sowing rate: 5-10g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow 20-26 weeks before sale. Germination of english types (L. angustifolia) is frequently below 50%; scarification or freezing of seedflat can sometimes improve germination.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12-16 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8-10 weeks.
Pests: mealybug, whitefly, spider mite, scale
Diseases: few problems.
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Lemongrass
(Cymbopogon citratus, C. flexuosus) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (stem); (herb);
Market size: 50,000 hectares (world), 2,600 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: C. flexuosus 2000-2400 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, sandy loam, pH 5.5-6.5
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: C. flexuosus 5-10kg/ha (direct).
Planting: C. citratus grown from cuttings only. Sow C. flexuosus in spring. Heavy feeder. Oil quality of C. citratus highest at 18-24 months.
Field spacing: C. citratus 100cm between rows x 45cm within rows; broadcast C. flexuosus, or sow in rows 60-100cm apart.
Yield: C. citratus dry herb 4-6t/ha, oil 30-40kg/ha (years 1-5); C. flexuosus dry herb 10-15t/ha, 80kg/ha (years 1-5).
Pests: no data
Diseases: C. citratus himantia web blight, myriogenospora tangletop, helminthosperium eyespot, papularia.
Buyers want: high citral content.
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Sowing rate: 5g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow C. flexuosus in plugs 13-14 weeks before sale. C. citratus grown from cuttings only.
Seeds to finished plugs: 10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3-8 weeks.
Pests: spider mite, whitefly, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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Licorice
(Glycyrrhiza spp. ) |
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Market
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Products: (root);
Market size: 45,000 hectares (world), 480 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices down, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 400-600 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: deep, rich, moist, sandy, slightly alkaline, pH 7.3-7.8
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 3-4 kg/ha (direct), 5-10g/1000 plants (indirect).
Planting: soak seeds 2-3 hours in 30°C water or scarify before planting to weaken hard seed coat. Sow direct in spring or in deep plugs 12-16 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 70-90cm between rows x 45-90cm within rows.
Yield: G. glabra dry root 10-20t/ha (year 3-5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: uromyces rust, cercospora blight.
Buyers want: minimum 4% glycyrrhizinic acid, minimum 20% water soluble extractive.
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Sowing rate: 5-10g/1000plants.
Planting: soak seed in warm water (30°C) for 2-3 hours or scarify before sowing. Sow in flats or deep plugs 22-26 weeks before sale. Highly susceptible to damping-off; preventative application of damping-off control recommended.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12-16 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: damping-off.
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Lobelia
(Lobelia inflata ) |
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Market
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Products: (seed, herb);
Market size: 9,000 hectares (world), 1,700 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 30,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, rich soil
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 0.2-1kg/ha (direct), 0.1kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow in plugs or seedflats 12 weeks before field planting. Harvest herb when upper flowers are in bloom and lowest flowers have developed seed capsules when lobeline and lobelidine alkaloid content highest.
Field spacing: 30cm between rows x 15cm within rows.
Yield: dry herb 1100kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: wireworms
Diseases: cercospora, phyllosticta and septoria leaf spots.
Buyers want: no data.
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Sowing rate: 0.5g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow in plugs 14 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4-6 weeks.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
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Alfalfa
(Medicago sativa ) |
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Market
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Products: (seeds, leaf, herb); (herb, sprouts)
Market size: (excluding acreage planted for fodder): 12,000 hectares (world); 5,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices and acreage up
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Culture |
Seed density: 350 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained; pH 6.0-7.5
Crop duration: 1-4 years
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(herb) |
Sowing rate: 9-13kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring, broadcast or sow in rows, 15-30cm apart. Two or more cuts at bud stage possible; last cut 6 weeks before killing frost. Heavy potash and phosphorus feeder.
Yield: dry herb 8-10,000kg/ha (years 1-4).
Pests: weevil, leafminer, leafhopper, snout beetle
Diseases: verticillium wilt, leafspot, phytophthora root rot.
Buyers want: organic product.
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(sprouts) |
Planting: soak seeds overnight; drain, keep moist. Ready in 3-5 days.
Yield: 4kg(sprouts)/kg(seeds).
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Arnica
(A. montana, A. chamissonis) |
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Market
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Products: (flower, root); (flower);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 160 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume down
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Culture |
Seed density: 700-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, humus-rich, pH 7 (A. chamissonis), pH 4.5-6 (A. montana)
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 1-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing not recommended. Sow in seedflats or plugs. Sow A. montana 16-20 weeks before transplanting to field; sow A. chamissonis 12 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 15-60cm between rows x 15-20cm within rows.
Harvest: flower (years 2-5), root (year 3 or 4).
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: chlorosis (yellow leaves) in A. montana caused by alkaline soil.
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Sowing rate: 8-10g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in seedflats or plugs 20 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8 weeks.
Pests: few problems, whitefly occasionally
Diseases: few problems.
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Lemon Balm
(Melissa officinalis) |
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Market
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Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 75 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 2000 seeds/gram
Exposure: sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained clay or sandy loam, pH 6 to 7.5
Crop duration: 2-4 years
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Sowing rate: 7-9kg/ha (direct), 250-400g/ha (indirect, in plugs).
Planting: sowing in plugs in greenhouse in early spring till mid-summer is most common method; sow 6-8 weeks before transplanting to field. Direct sowing is not as common because weed control is more difficult; sow in early spring or late fall (to come up next spring).
Field spacing: 50-75cm between rows x 18-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry herb 5000kg/ha, fresh herb 10-25t/ha (years 1-3).
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: erisyphe powdery mildew, septoria blight, puccinia rust.
Buyers want: dry carefully to conserve oil in dried herb.
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Sowing rate: 3-5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in flats or plugs 11-14 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spidermite, thrip
Diseases: mildew.
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Basil
(Ocimum basilicum, and others ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf, herb); (herb); (oil);
Market size: 10,000 hectares (world), 1,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 500-1000 (O. gratissimum 2600, O. kilamandscharicum 2800, O. sanctum 1500-2500) seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: rich, well-drained
Crop duration: 1 year (O. basilicum), 1-3 years (others)
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Sowing rate: 20kg/ha (direct); 3-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in spring when nighttime temperatures exceed 10°C; or sow in flats or plugs 8 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 15-25cm within rows.
Yield: fresh herb 15,000kg/ha, dry herb 1,500-2,000kg/ha, oil 30kg/ha (year 1)
Pests: aphids, thrips
Diseases: O. basilicum varieties are highly susceptible to fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum) disease. Disease persists in soil for several years. Commercial field plantings should be sown with fusarium-tolerant Nufar F1. Hydroponic operations may choose fusarium-free varieties if equipment and facilities are free of fusarium (spreads by contaminated seeds and equipment). Other basil species (e.g. O. americanum and O. gratissimum) are fusarium-tolerant.
Buyers want: not less than 0.4% essential oil in dried product.
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Sowing rate: 3-4g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in final pots, or in plugs and later transplant to final pots. Nighttime temperature must not go below 10°C.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, thrips, aphids
Diseases: fusarium (see above).
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Bay Laurel
(Laurus nobilis ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (leaf);
Market size: 2,000 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 1 seeds/gram
Exposure: sheltered position in full or half sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, moist
Crop duration: 20-50 years
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Sowing rate: 30-60kg/ha
Planting: sow stratified seeds in beds or flats.
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: leaves dried flat for visual appearance.
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Sowing rate: 5kg/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or flats in March or April.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks (after stratification).
Plugs to saleable plants: 10 weeks to a year.
Pests: whitefly, scale, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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Borage
(Borago officinalis ) |
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Market
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Products: (seed, herb, flower, root); (herb, flower, root), (seed);
Market size: 5,000 hectares (world); 2,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, acreage up
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Culture |
Seed density: 50 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: best in well-drained, fertile, moist soil, but tolerates most soils, pH 5-8
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 5-17 kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in late spring in rows 45-90cm apart, 30-45cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 300kg/ha; fresh flower 1,000-5,000kg/ha; seed 90-450kg/ha.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: 24% gamma lineolenic acid content in seed oil.
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Sowing rate: 50-80g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots or plugs.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
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Burdock
(Arctium lappa) |
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Market
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Products: (root, leaf); (root);
Market size: 3,000 hectares (world), 170 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 60-110 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or part sun
Soil: deep, loose, humus-rich, pH 6-8
Crop duration: 1-2 years
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Sowing rate: 4 kg/ha (direct), 1.5kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring. Or, sow in beds or plugs and transplant to field in spring. For use as fresh vegetable, dig first year roots when young and tender at 3-5 months. For dry root production, dig in fall of second year.
Field spacing: 45-90cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry root 2,000kg/ha (years 2 or 3).
Pests: few problems, grasshopper
Diseases: few problems.
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Sowing rate: 20g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs 9-10 weeks before sale.
Seeds to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Calendula
(C. officinalis) |
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Market
|
Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 880 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 150 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained; can tolerate poor soil with low nitrogen.
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 3-9kg/ha (direct), 1kg/ha (indirect in plugs).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring or autumn; or sow in plugs 4-6 weeks before field planting. Seeds need light to germinate; cover seeds lightly or press in soil only.
Field spacing: 20-70cm between rows x 10-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 1-2,000kg/ha, fresh flower 6-9,000kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: blister-beetle, cabbage-looper, caterpillar, leafhopper
Diseases: leaf spot, aster-yellows.
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Sowing rate: 15g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or direct in pots 10-12 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 4-6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, aphid, thrip, mealybug
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Caraway
(Carum carvi) |
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Market
|
Products: (seed); (seed)
Market size: 19,000 hectares (world), 2,500 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 350-400 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, pH 6-7.8.
Crop duration: 1-2 years (depending on variety)
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Sowing rate: 8-11 kg/ha.
Planting: sow standard biennial type direct in field late June or early July; harvest following year in August. Sow annual type in May (suited for warmer regions with 5-6 frost-free months). Sometimes sown with annual cover crops such as coriander, dill, mustard the first year.
Field spacing: 10-50cm between rows x 4-15cm within rows.
Yield: seed 600-3,000kg/ha, oil 4.5-7kg/ha (year 1 or 2, depending on variety).
Pests: leafhopper
Diseases: aster yellows.
Buyers want: seed minimum 3% oil, maximum 12% moisture.
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Catnip
(Nepeta cataria ) |
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Market
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Products: (herb, leaf);
Market size: 2,400 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 1500-1600 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or partial sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, sandy, pH 6.5
Crop duration: 2-5 years
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Sowing rate: 12 kg/ha (direct), 1kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring or late fall. Or, sow in plugs 8-10 weeks before field planting. Seed needs light to germinate; sow shallow 2-4mm deep.
Field spacing: 45-90cm between rows x 30-40cm within rows.
Harvest: leaf, herb (years 2-5).
Yield: dry herb 3-6t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
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Sowing rate: 3g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or seedflats 12-15 weeks before sale. Sow 2-4mm deep.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8-10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3-5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
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Chamomile
(Matricaria recutita, Chamaemelum nobile ) |
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Market
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Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 40,000 hectares (world), 4,800 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 10,000-18,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained, moist to dry
Crop duration: 1 year (M. recutita), 2-3 years (C. nobile)
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Sowing rate: 3-4 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect)
Planting: german (M. recutita) is sown direct in field in spring or fall. Fall sowings germinate following spring. Roman (C. nobile) is sown direct or indirect in plugs which are later planted in field. Surface sow only (needs light to germinate). Hand harvesting flowers problematic in areas where labour cost is high; mechanical harvesting still unproven.
Field spacing: 10-50cm between rows x 10-25cm within rows, or broadcast sown.
Yield: dry flower 350-500kg/ha (M. recutita; year 1), 600-1000 kg/ha (C. nobile; years 1-3).
Pests: cnephasia moth
Diseases: aster yellows.
Buyers want: 0.4% or more volatile oil.
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Sowing rate: 1g/1000plants.
Planting: german (M. recutita) not normally sold in pots; roman (C. nobile) and its varieties are sold in pots or plugs. Seeds need light to germinate; surface sow only.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4-6 weeks.
Pests: aphid, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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Chives
(Allium schoenoprasum, A. tuberosum ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf, flower); (leaf, flower);
Market size: 24,000 hectares (world), 3,200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 750 (A. schoenoprasum), 200-300 (A. tuberosum) seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, humus-rich
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 2-3 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring, or sow indirect in plugs 12-16 weeks before field planting. Field must be free of quackgrass otherwise harvests will be contaminated.
Field spacing: 30cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: fresh leaf 10-20t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: aphid
Diseases: puccinia rust, downy mildew.
Buyers want: good green colour (dry leaf).
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Sowing rate: 5-20g/1000plants (A. schoenoprasum), 50g/1000plants (A. tuberosum)
Planting: sow 10-15 seeds per plug or pot, or sow same amount direct in pots.
Seeds to saleable plants: 24-30 weeks.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12-16 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 11 weeks.
Pests: aphid, thrip
Diseases: few problems.
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Comfrey
(Symphytum officinale, S. x uplandicum) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf, root); (root, herb);
Market size: 1,700 hectares (world), 240 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 90-100 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or part sun
Soil: moist, wet or dry
Crop duration: 2-5 years
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Sowing rate: 600-900g/ha (indirect).
Planting: although seed can be sown direct, the high cost of seed dictates indirect sowing in plugs or seedbed and transplanting to field. Root cuttings (12,000/ha) of named cultivars (e.g. Bocking No. 14) recommended over seed.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 90cm within rows.
Yield: dry leaf 12t/ha (years 2-5), dry root 1,800kg/ha (year 3, 4 or 5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: comfrey rust.
Buyers want: low pyrrolizidine alkaloid content, particularly echimidine; leaf should be cut early to avoid alkaloid buildup.
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Sowing rate: 50-70g/1000plants.
Planting: sow S. officinale in plugs or seedflats 12-14 weeks before sale. S. x uplandicum and ornamental varieties are propagated by division or root cutting.
Seeds to saleable plants: 12 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, aphid
Diseases: comfrey rust.
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Coriander, Cilantro
(Coriandrum sativum) |
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Market
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Products: (seed); (herb); (seed, herb);
Market size: 600,000 hectares (world), 5,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 110-150 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun (seed), full or half sun (fresh herb)
Soil: deep, fertile, light or heavy, well-drained, pH 6.5-7.5
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 25 kg/ha (seed), 80 kg/ha (fresh herb).
Planting: for seed and seed oil production, sow direct in spring. For fresh herb (cilantro) and herb oil production sow early spring and fall; will bolt in hot weather.
Field spacing: 50-60cm between rows x 11-13cm between plants (seed), 20-25cm between rows x 8-10cm (fresh herb).
Yield: seed 900-1,500kg/ha, fresh herb 10-12t/ha, oil 1-9kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: thrip
Diseases: asters yellow, erysiphe powdery mildew, puccinia rust, pseudamonas, and sclerotina.
Buyers want: less than 12% moisture.
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Sowing rate: 200g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots; do not transplant – root disturbance causes plants to bolt early.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: aphid, thrip, mite, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Dandelion
(Taraxacum officinale) |
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Market
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Products: (root, herb); (leaf)
Market size: 7,000 hectares (world); 500 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 1200-1900 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: most soils
Crop duration: 2 years (root), 1-4 years (fresh leaf)
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Sowing rate: 1-3kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring or late summer. Fresh leaf gathered as vegetable spring, summer and fall. Herb for drying harvested spring or summer. Roots dug late fall.
Field spacing: 45cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: dry root 1100-1700kg/ha (year 2).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: water-soluble extractive not less than 30%.
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Dill
(Anethum graveolens, A. sowa ) |
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Market
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Products: (seed, herb); (leaf); (leaf, seed);
Market size: 37,000 hectares (world), 4,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices same, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 400-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, moderately rich, loose soil, pH 5.5-6.5
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 9-12 kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in spring.
Field spacing: 25-50cm between rows; thin to 10cm within rows for fresh herb production or 2-3cm within rows for seed production.
Yield: seed 600-900kg/ha, fresh herb 2500-5000kg/ha, dried herb 1000kg/ha, oil 50-110kg/ha.
Pests: aphid, tarnished plant bug
Diseases: powdery mildew, leafspot, aster yellows.
Buyers want: good green colour (dried leaf).
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Sowing rate: 15-40g/1000pots.
Planting: do not transplant; sow direct in pots, 8-20 seeds per pot.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: aphid
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Echinacea
(Echinacea purpurea, E. angustifolia, E. pallida ) |
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Market
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Products: (root, herb, flower, seed); (herb);
Market size: 16,000 hectares (world), 4,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices down, acreage up; market for E. purpurea herb is weak.
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Culture |
Seed density: 160-500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained, pH 6-7.5
Crop duration: 3-4 years
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Sowing rate: 14-18 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: E. purpurea seeds do not require pretreatment. Can be started in plugs and transplanted to the field, which is the preferred method, or can be sown direct in the field. Sow E. purpurea 100-120 days before field planting; sow E. angustifolia and E. pallida 150 days before planting. E. angustifolia and E. pallida germination benefits from pretreatment; stratify at 5°C for 4-12 weeks with light. Pretreatment with Ethrel (1 millimolar for 2 weeks), or with bleach (1% for 10 min.) improves E. angustifolia germination.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 20-45cm within rows.
Yield: E. purpurea herb 6,500-11,000kg/ha (years 2-4); E. purpurea root 1000kg/ha (year 4); E. angustifolia root 1100kg/ha (year 4); no data for E. pallida root.
Pests: leafhopper
Diseases: aster yellows (spread by leafhoppers), sclerotinia stem and root rot, botrytis.
Buyers want: certificate of botanical identity required for E. angustifolia; echinacoside 1.4% (roots).
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Sowing rate: 10g/1000plants.
Planting: sow 14 weeks (E. purpurea) to 22 weeks (E. angustifolia, E. pallida) before sale. Stratify or pretreat E. angustifolia and E. pallida seed before sowing (see above).
Seeds to finished plugs: 8-12 weeks (after pretreatment).
Plugs to saleable plants: 6-10 weeks.
Pests: few problems, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Elecampane
(Inula helenium ) |
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Market
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Products: (root); (root);
Market size: 800 hectares (world), 25 ha (North America).
Prospects: prices same, volume same
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Culture |
Seed density: 600-800 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: moist, deep, well-drained
Crop duration: 2 years.
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Sowing rate: 400-600g/ha (direct); 5g/1000plants (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing not recommended. Start in plugs 8 weeks before spring or late summer field planting.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 45cm within rows.
Yield: 2500kg/ha (year 2).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: erysiphe powdery mildew (late summer), ramularia leafspot, puccinia rust.
Buyers want: not less than 1.8% volatile oil, not more than 6-8% ash, not less than 27% water-soluble extractive, not more than 2% foreign matter.
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Sowing rate: 5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs, seedflats or seed beds. Germination in 4-7 days.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 2-6 weeks.
Pests: spider mite, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Fennel
(Foeniculum vulgare) |
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Market
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Products: (seed); (leaf, bulb); (herb);
Market size: 70,000 hectares (world), 7,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 200-300 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, deep, moderately fertile, pH 7-8.
Crop duration: 2-3 years (florence fennel, 1 year)
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Sowing rate: 4-6kg/ha (direct), 30g/1000plants (indirect).
Planting: sow sweet fennel direct; bronze direct or indirect; florence indirect.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: seed 1000-1600kg/ha (years 2-3), fresh herb 8-10t/ha (year 1-3), dried herb 1.5-2.5t/ha (year 1-3), seed oil 40-75kg/ha.
Pests: aphid, lygus tarnished plant bug
Diseases: sclerotinia stemrot, rhizoctonia damping-off, erwinia soft rot.
Buyers want: not less than 2-4% volatile oil.
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Sowing rate: 30g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots or in plugs. Does not transplant well; best to sow direct.
Seeds to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3 weeks.
Pests: aphid
Diseases: damping-off.
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Fenugreek
(Trigonella foenum-graecum) |
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Market
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Products: (seeds, leaf, herb); (herb, sprouts); (seed)
Market size: 90,000 hectares (world), 7,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 100 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, warm soil
Crop duration: 1 year.
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Sowing rate: 25-35kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in spring. Broadcast or in close rows.
Field spacing: 20cm between rows x 10-20cm within rows.
Yield: seed 700-900kg/ha, dried forage 2-10t/ha.
Pests: no data
Diseases: no data.
Buyers want: swelling index not less than 6, foreign matter not more than 2-5%, ash not more than 5-6% (seed).
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Feverfew
(Tanacetum parthenium) |
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Market
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Products: (herb);
Market size: 1,300 hectares (world), 160 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume down
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Culture |
Seed density: 7,500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained, dry soil
Crop duration: 1-2 years
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Sowing rate: 1-1.5 kg/ha (direct); 0.5g/1000plants.
Planting: plugs preferred over direct sowing because seeds very small. Sow plugs 8 weeks before spring planting date. Don't allow to go to seed to avoid winterkill. Frequent fertilization with low nitrogen fertilizer is beneficial. Long days trigger flowering. Short lived perennial; some growers treat as annual.
Field spacing: 20-90cm between rows x 10-20cm within rows.
Yield: 300-5000kg/ha (years 1-2).
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: minimum 0.4-0.8% parthenolide.
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Sowing rate: 0.5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow 14-16 weeks before sales in flats or plug trays.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6-8 weeks.
Pests: aphid, whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
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Scented Geranium
(Pelargonium spp. ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (leaf);
Market size: 4,000 hectares (world), 400 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 360-450 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, neutral to alkaline
Crop duration: 1 year temperate areas, 3-5 year in tropical areas.d o Planting: all commercially important varieties are propagated by cuttings. Plugs planted in spring after last frost date. FieldSpacing: 60-100cm between rows x 20-50cm within rows. Yield: fresh leaf 13-30t/ha, oil 13-17kg/ha (years 1-5). PestsDiseases: aphid, caterpillar / alternaria leaf spot.
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Seeds/ |
Planting: all commercially important varieties are propagated by cuttings. Plugs planted in spring after last frost date.
Field spacing: 60-100cm between rows x 20-50cm within rows.
Yield: fresh leaf 13-30t/ha, oil 13-17kg/ha (years 1-5).
Pests: aphid, caterpillar
Diseases: alternaria leaf spot.
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Sowing rate: 30-80g/1000 plants.
Planting: commercial propagation is by cutting only.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6-8 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, geranium and peach aphid, mite, mealybug, scale
Diseases: various leaf spots including xanthomonas, alternaria, botrytis.
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Gingko
(Ginkgo biloba ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (seed);
Market size: 5,000 hectares (world), 600 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 1 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: rich, well-drained, moist soil
Crop duration: 20-50+ years
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Sowing rate: 2-4kg/hectare.
Planting: seeds require stratification, 1-2 months warm, then 1-2 months cold, then sow in spring. Common nursery practice is to sow without stratification in outdoor seed beds in fall. Seedlings shaded for 2-3 years and fertilized with manure. Seedlings transplanted to permanent location when 7-8 years old. Trees kept short (2m) and spaced close (2-3m) in commercial plantations for medicinal leaf production; otherwise allowed to grow higher and spaced further for seed production. Slow growing. Leaves harvested in early fall as they begin to turn yellow; dried in sun. Fruits harvested late fall, seeds cleaned and roasted.
Field spacing: 3-5m apart (2-3m within rows for leaf production).
Yield: no data (leaf years 8-50, seed years 20-50).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: tolerates pollution.
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Sowing rate: 2-4kg/1000 plants.
Planting: stratify seed warm (1-2 months) followed by cold (1-2 months). Sow in deep plugs. Keep lightly shaded.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks to 1 year.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8 weeks (10cm pots), 2-5 years (larger plants).
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Ginseng
(Panax quinquefolius, P. ginseng; Eleutherococcus senticosus) |
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Market
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Products: (root)
Market size: Panax 70,000 hectares (world), 7,400 ha (North America)
Prospects: Panax prices down, volume up. Prospects for woodsgrown Panax much better than shadecloth grown.
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Culture |
Seed density: Panax 15; Eleutherococcus 100 seeds/gram
Exposure: Panax 70% shade; Eleutherococcus 30-50% shade
Soil: well-drained, sandy or clay loam, in raised beds, pH 5.5-6.0
Crop duration: Panax 3-4 years (shadecloth), 4-8 years (woodsgrown); Eleutherococcus 6-12 years
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Sowing rate: 40-100 kg/ha (shadecloth), 10-20 kg/ha (woodsgrown).
Planting: Panax seeds stratified one year. Sow stratified seeds in seedbeds and transplant seedlings to raised beds in years 1-2, or sow direct in raised beds. Mulch with straw. Remove shadecloth over winter. Eleutherococcus seeds need at least cycles of warm-cold stratification; best results obtained when sown in flats in fall and left out over winter under mulch.
Field spacing: Panax 15-20cm between rows x 15-20cm within rows, further apart in woodsgrown plantings; Eleutherococcus 60-100cm apart.
Yield: Panax (shadecloth) 3400kg/ha (years 3-4).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: Panax alternaria leaf blight, rhizoctonia wilt, phytophthora, powdery mildew; Eleutherococcus few problems.
Buyers want: ginsenosides not less than 1.5-2%, ash not more than 4-8%.
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Sowing rate: Panax 150g/1000 plants; Eleutherococcus 250g/1000plants.
Planting: sow stratified Panax seeds in deep plugs, 2-4 seeds per plug, or sow in seed flats. Provide shade, keep cool and well ventilated.
Seeds to finished plugs: Panax 6 months (after stratification).
Plugs to saleable plants: Panax 1 year.
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: Panax alternaria, rhizoctonia.
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Goldenseal
(Hydrastis canadensis) |
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Market
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Products: (root);
Market size: 17,000 hectares (world), 7,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices down, volume up. Majority of market supplied by wildcrafted material, but wild stocks are becoming depleted and now listed on CITES.
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Culture |
Seed density: 50-55 seeds/gram
Exposure: 50-75% Shade
Soil: well-drained, deep, fertile soil, pH 5.5-6.5, in raised beds or on gentle slope.
Crop duration: 3-6 years
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Sowing rate: 10kg/ha (direct), 100g/1000 plants (indirect); rootlets 100,000/ha.
Planting: growers prefer rootlets over seeds because they are more reliable and quicker to harvestable size (3 years); however, seed quality has improved recently and cost of seeds is much less than rootlets. Seeds take 5-6 years to get harvestable roots. Seeds must not dry out; must be sown immediately after harvest in late summer to come up following spring. Avoid straw mulch and fertilize lightly.
Field spacing: 15-40cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: 900-2300kg/ha (year 3-6).
Pests: slugs
Diseases: alternaria, phytophthora, rhizoctonia, botrytis leafspot, fusarium.
Buyers want: min. alkaloids 3.5%.
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Sowing rate: seed 100g/1000plants, rootlets 300-1000/1000 plants.
Planting: for potted plant production, best to start with rootlets. Pot up rootlets 4 weeks before sale. Provide cool, shaded, and well-ventilated conditions; will not tolerate full sun and high humidity.
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: alternaria and other diseases common in potted plants in greenhouses.
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Lavender
(Lavandula angustifolia, L. x intermedia) |
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Market
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Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 9,000 hectares (world), 1,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 850-1300 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained, deep, not too rich, pH 6.5-7.5
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 3-6kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: lavandins (L. x intermedia; e.g. 'Provence' and 'Grosso'), best for commercial flower and oil production, are propagated vegetatively only. Only english types are available in seed form, but seed grown material may not be uniform enough for field production. Direct sowing not recommended; germination is too slow (15-30 days). Sow in seedflats 12-16 weeks before outdoor planting; transplant to plugs at 4-6 weeks, then transplant to field.
Field spacing: 60-120cm between rows x 25-120cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 500-1500kg/ha (years 2-5), oil 8-32kg/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: caterpillar, nematode
Diseases: phoma scab, septoria leaf spot, armillaria root rot.
Buyers want: 1.3% volatile oil or higher, good colour.
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Sowing rate: 5-10g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow 20-26 weeks before sale. Germination of english types (L. angustifolia) is frequently below 50%; scarification or freezing of seedflat can sometimes improve germination.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12-16 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8-10 weeks.
Pests: mealybug, whitefly, spider mite, scale
Diseases: few problems.
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Lemongrass
(Cymbopogon citratus, C. flexuosus) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (stem); (herb);
Market size: 50,000 hectares (world), 2,600 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: C. flexuosus 2000-2400 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, sandy loam, pH 5.5-6.5
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: C. flexuosus 5-10kg/ha (direct).
Planting: C. citratus grown from cuttings only. Sow C. flexuosus in spring. Heavy feeder. Oil quality of C. citratus highest at 18-24 months.
Field spacing: C. citratus 100cm between rows x 45cm within rows; broadcast C. flexuosus, or sow in rows 60-100cm apart.
Yield: C. citratus dry herb 4-6t/ha, oil 30-40kg/ha (years 1-5); C. flexuosus dry herb 10-15t/ha, 80kg/ha (years 1-5).
Pests: no data
Diseases: C. citratus himantia web blight, myriogenospora tangletop, helminthosperium eyespot, papularia.
Buyers want: high citral content.
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Sowing rate: 5g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow C. flexuosus in plugs 13-14 weeks before sale. C. citratus grown from cuttings only.
Seeds to finished plugs: 10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3-8 weeks.
Pests: spider mite, whitefly, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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Licorice
(Glycyrrhiza spp. ) |
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Market
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Products: (root);
Market size: 45,000 hectares (world), 480 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices down, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 400-600 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: deep, rich, moist, sandy, slightly alkaline, pH 7.3-7.8
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 3-4 kg/ha (direct), 5-10g/1000 plants (indirect).
Planting: soak seeds 2-3 hours in 30°C water or scarify before planting to weaken hard seed coat. Sow direct in spring or in deep plugs 12-16 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 70-90cm between rows x 45-90cm within rows.
Yield: G. glabra dry root 10-20t/ha (year 3-5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: uromyces rust, cercospora blight.
Buyers want: minimum 4% glycyrrhizinic acid, minimum 20% water soluble extractive.
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Sowing rate: 5-10g/1000plants.
Planting: soak seed in warm water (30°C) for 2-3 hours or scarify before sowing. Sow in flats or deep plugs 22-26 weeks before sale. Highly susceptible to damping-off; preventative application of damping-off control recommended.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12-16 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: damping-off.
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Lobelia
(Lobelia inflata ) |
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Market
|
Products: (seed, herb);
Market size: 9,000 hectares (world), 1,700 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 30,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, rich soil
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 0.2-1kg/ha (direct), 0.1kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow in plugs or seedflats 12 weeks before field planting. Harvest herb when upper flowers are in bloom and lowest flowers have developed seed capsules when lobeline and lobelidine alkaloid content highest.
Field spacing: 30cm between rows x 15cm within rows.
Yield: dry herb 1100kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: wireworms
Diseases: cercospora, phyllosticta and septoria leaf spots.
Buyers want: no data.
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Sowing rate: 0.5g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow in plugs 14 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4-6 weeks.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
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Marjoram
(Origanum majorana) |
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Market
|
Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 12,000 hectares (world), 800 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 3,500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, pH 6.5-7.5
Crop duration: 1 year (2-3 years in zone 9+)
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Sowing rate: 5-6kg/ha (direct), 0.2-0.3kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: requires warmth to do well; germinates best above 15°C daytime and 10°C nighttime. Sow direct in warmer zones; or sow indirect in plugs 12 weeks before field planting in cooler zones.
Field spacing: 30-40cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: 2.5-3t/ha (years 1-3).
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: botrytis gray mold, alternaria, puccinia rust, septoria.
Buyers want: no data.
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Sowing rate: 1g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or direct in pots 6-8 weeks before sale. Minimum 15°C days, 10°C nights.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 2-4 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite, thrip
Diseases: few problems.
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| |
Alfalfa
(Medicago sativa ) |
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Market
|
Products: (seeds, leaf, herb); (herb, sprouts)
Market size: (excluding acreage planted for fodder): 12,000 hectares (world); 5,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices and acreage up
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Culture |
Seed density: 350 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained; pH 6.0-7.5
Crop duration: 1-4 years
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(herb) |
Sowing rate: 9-13kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring, broadcast or sow in rows, 15-30cm apart. Two or more cuts at bud stage possible; last cut 6 weeks before killing frost. Heavy potash and phosphorus feeder.
Yield: dry herb 8-10,000kg/ha (years 1-4).
Pests: weevil, leafminer, leafhopper, snout beetle
Diseases: verticillium wilt, leafspot, phytophthora root rot.
Buyers want: organic product.
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(sprouts) |
Planting: soak seeds overnight; drain, keep moist. Ready in 3-5 days.
Yield: 4kg(sprouts)/kg(seeds).
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Arnica
(A. montana, A. chamissonis) |
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Market
|
Products: (flower, root); (flower);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 160 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume down
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Culture |
Seed density: 700-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, humus-rich, pH 7 (A. chamissonis), pH 4.5-6 (A. montana)
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 1-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing not recommended. Sow in seedflats or plugs. Sow A. montana 16-20 weeks before transplanting to field; sow A. chamissonis 12 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 15-60cm between rows x 15-20cm within rows.
Harvest: flower (years 2-5), root (year 3 or 4).
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: chlorosis (yellow leaves) in A. montana caused by alkaline soil.
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Sowing rate: 8-10g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in seedflats or plugs 20 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8 weeks.
Pests: few problems, whitefly occasionally
Diseases: few problems.
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Lemon Balm
(Melissa officinalis) |
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Market
|
Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 75 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 2000 seeds/gram
Exposure: sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained clay or sandy loam, pH 6 to 7.5
Crop duration: 2-4 years
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Sowing rate: 7-9kg/ha (direct), 250-400g/ha (indirect, in plugs).
Planting: sowing in plugs in greenhouse in early spring till mid-summer is most common method; sow 6-8 weeks before transplanting to field. Direct sowing is not as common because weed control is more difficult; sow in early spring or late fall (to come up next spring).
Field spacing: 50-75cm between rows x 18-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry herb 5000kg/ha, fresh herb 10-25t/ha (years 1-3).
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: erisyphe powdery mildew, septoria blight, puccinia rust.
Buyers want: dry carefully to conserve oil in dried herb.
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Sowing rate: 3-5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in flats or plugs 11-14 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spidermite, thrip
Diseases: mildew.
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| |
Basil
(Ocimum basilicum, and others ) |
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Market
|
Products: (leaf, herb); (herb); (oil);
Market size: 10,000 hectares (world), 1,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 500-1000 (O. gratissimum 2600, O. kilamandscharicum 2800, O. sanctum 1500-2500) seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: rich, well-drained
Crop duration: 1 year (O. basilicum), 1-3 years (others)
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Sowing rate: 20kg/ha (direct); 3-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in spring when nighttime temperatures exceed 10°C; or sow in flats or plugs 8 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 15-25cm within rows.
Yield: fresh herb 15,000kg/ha, dry herb 1,500-2,000kg/ha, oil 30kg/ha (year 1)
Pests: aphids, thrips
Diseases: O. basilicum varieties are highly susceptible to fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum) disease. Disease persists in soil for several years. Commercial field plantings should be sown with fusarium-tolerant Nufar F1. Hydroponic operations may choose fusarium-free varieties if equipment and facilities are free of fusarium (spreads by contaminated seeds and equipment). Other basil species (e.g. O. americanum and O. gratissimum) are fusarium-tolerant.
Buyers want: not less than 0.4% essential oil in dried product.
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Sowing rate: 3-4g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in final pots, or in plugs and later transplant to final pots. Nighttime temperature must not go below 10°C.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, thrips, aphids
Diseases: fusarium (see above).
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| |
Bay Laurel
(Laurus nobilis ) |
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Market
|
Products: (leaf); (leaf);
Market size: 2,000 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 1 seeds/gram
Exposure: sheltered position in full or half sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, moist
Crop duration: 20-50 years
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Sowing rate: 30-60kg/ha
Planting: sow stratified seeds in beds or flats.
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: leaves dried flat for visual appearance.
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Sowing rate: 5kg/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or flats in March or April.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks (after stratification).
Plugs to saleable plants: 10 weeks to a year.
Pests: whitefly, scale, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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Borage
(Borago officinalis ) |
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Market
|
Products: (seed, herb, flower, root); (herb, flower, root), (seed);
Market size: 5,000 hectares (world); 2,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, acreage up
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Culture |
Seed density: 50 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: best in well-drained, fertile, moist soil, but tolerates most soils, pH 5-8
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 5-17 kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in late spring in rows 45-90cm apart, 30-45cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 300kg/ha; fresh flower 1,000-5,000kg/ha; seed 90-450kg/ha.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: 24% gamma lineolenic acid content in seed oil.
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Sowing rate: 50-80g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots or plugs.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
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| |
Burdock
(Arctium lappa) |
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Market
|
Products: (root, leaf); (root);
Market size: 3,000 hectares (world), 170 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 60-110 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or part sun
Soil: deep, loose, humus-rich, pH 6-8
Crop duration: 1-2 years
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Sowing rate: 4 kg/ha (direct), 1.5kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring. Or, sow in beds or plugs and transplant to field in spring. For use as fresh vegetable, dig first year roots when young and tender at 3-5 months. For dry root production, dig in fall of second year.
Field spacing: 45-90cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry root 2,000kg/ha (years 2 or 3).
Pests: few problems, grasshopper
Diseases: few problems.
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Sowing rate: 20g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs 9-10 weeks before sale.
Seeds to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Calendula
(C. officinalis) |
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Market
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Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 880 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 150 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained; can tolerate poor soil with low nitrogen.
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 3-9kg/ha (direct), 1kg/ha (indirect in plugs).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring or autumn; or sow in plugs 4-6 weeks before field planting. Seeds need light to germinate; cover seeds lightly or press in soil only.
Field spacing: 20-70cm between rows x 10-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 1-2,000kg/ha, fresh flower 6-9,000kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: blister-beetle, cabbage-looper, caterpillar, leafhopper
Diseases: leaf spot, aster-yellows.
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Sowing rate: 15g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or direct in pots 10-12 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 4-6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, aphid, thrip, mealybug
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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| |
Caraway
(Carum carvi) |
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Market
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Products: (seed); (seed)
Market size: 19,000 hectares (world), 2,500 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 350-400 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, pH 6-7.8.
Crop duration: 1-2 years (depending on variety)
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Sowing rate: 8-11 kg/ha.
Planting: sow standard biennial type direct in field late June or early July; harvest following year in August. Sow annual type in May (suited for warmer regions with 5-6 frost-free months). Sometimes sown with annual cover crops such as coriander, dill, mustard the first year.
Field spacing: 10-50cm between rows x 4-15cm within rows.
Yield: seed 600-3,000kg/ha, oil 4.5-7kg/ha (year 1 or 2, depending on variety).
Pests: leafhopper
Diseases: aster yellows.
Buyers want: seed minimum 3% oil, maximum 12% moisture.
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Catnip
(Nepeta cataria ) |
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Market
|
Products: (herb, leaf);
Market size: 2,400 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 1500-1600 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or partial sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, sandy, pH 6.5
Crop duration: 2-5 years
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Sowing rate: 12 kg/ha (direct), 1kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring or late fall. Or, sow in plugs 8-10 weeks before field planting. Seed needs light to germinate; sow shallow 2-4mm deep.
Field spacing: 45-90cm between rows x 30-40cm within rows.
Harvest: leaf, herb (years 2-5).
Yield: dry herb 3-6t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
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Sowing rate: 3g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or seedflats 12-15 weeks before sale. Sow 2-4mm deep.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8-10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3-5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
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Chamomile
(Matricaria recutita, Chamaemelum nobile ) |
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Market
|
Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 40,000 hectares (world), 4,800 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 10,000-18,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained, moist to dry
Crop duration: 1 year (M. recutita), 2-3 years (C. nobile)
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Sowing rate: 3-4 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect)
Planting: german (M. recutita) is sown direct in field in spring or fall. Fall sowings germinate following spring. Roman (C. nobile) is sown direct or indirect in plugs which are later planted in field. Surface sow only (needs light to germinate). Hand harvesting flowers problematic in areas where labour cost is high; mechanical harvesting still unproven.
Field spacing: 10-50cm between rows x 10-25cm within rows, or broadcast sown.
Yield: dry flower 350-500kg/ha (M. recutita; year 1), 600-1000 kg/ha (C. nobile; years 1-3).
Pests: cnephasia moth
Diseases: aster yellows.
Buyers want: 0.4% or more volatile oil.
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Sowing rate: 1g/1000plants.
Planting: german (M. recutita) not normally sold in pots; roman (C. nobile) and its varieties are sold in pots or plugs. Seeds need light to germinate; surface sow only.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4-6 weeks.
Pests: aphid, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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Chives
(Allium schoenoprasum, A. tuberosum ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf, flower); (leaf, flower);
Market size: 24,000 hectares (world), 3,200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 750 (A. schoenoprasum), 200-300 (A. tuberosum) seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, humus-rich
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 2-3 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring, or sow indirect in plugs 12-16 weeks before field planting. Field must be free of quackgrass otherwise harvests will be contaminated.
Field spacing: 30cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: fresh leaf 10-20t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: aphid
Diseases: puccinia rust, downy mildew.
Buyers want: good green colour (dry leaf).
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Sowing rate: 5-20g/1000plants (A. schoenoprasum), 50g/1000plants (A. tuberosum)
Planting: sow 10-15 seeds per plug or pot, or sow same amount direct in pots.
Seeds to saleable plants: 24-30 weeks.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12-16 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 11 weeks.
Pests: aphid, thrip
Diseases: few problems.
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Comfrey
(Symphytum officinale, S. x uplandicum) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf, root); (root, herb);
Market size: 1,700 hectares (world), 240 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 90-100 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or part sun
Soil: moist, wet or dry
Crop duration: 2-5 years
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Sowing rate: 600-900g/ha (indirect).
Planting: although seed can be sown direct, the high cost of seed dictates indirect sowing in plugs or seedbed and transplanting to field. Root cuttings (12,000/ha) of named cultivars (e.g. Bocking No. 14) recommended over seed.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 90cm within rows.
Yield: dry leaf 12t/ha (years 2-5), dry root 1,800kg/ha (year 3, 4 or 5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: comfrey rust.
Buyers want: low pyrrolizidine alkaloid content, particularly echimidine; leaf should be cut early to avoid alkaloid buildup.
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Sowing rate: 50-70g/1000plants.
Planting: sow S. officinale in plugs or seedflats 12-14 weeks before sale. S. x uplandicum and ornamental varieties are propagated by division or root cutting.
Seeds to saleable plants: 12 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, aphid
Diseases: comfrey rust.
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Coriander, Cilantro
(Coriandrum sativum) |
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Market
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Products: (seed); (herb); (seed, herb);
Market size: 600,000 hectares (world), 5,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 110-150 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun (seed), full or half sun (fresh herb)
Soil: deep, fertile, light or heavy, well-drained, pH 6.5-7.5
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 25 kg/ha (seed), 80 kg/ha (fresh herb).
Planting: for seed and seed oil production, sow direct in spring. For fresh herb (cilantro) and herb oil production sow early spring and fall; will bolt in hot weather.
Field spacing: 50-60cm between rows x 11-13cm between plants (seed), 20-25cm between rows x 8-10cm (fresh herb).
Yield: seed 900-1,500kg/ha, fresh herb 10-12t/ha, oil 1-9kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: thrip
Diseases: asters yellow, erysiphe powdery mildew, puccinia rust, pseudamonas, and sclerotina.
Buyers want: less than 12% moisture.
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Sowing rate: 200g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots; do not transplant – root disturbance causes plants to bolt early.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: aphid, thrip, mite, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Dandelion
(Taraxacum officinale) |
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Market
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Products: (root, herb); (leaf)
Market size: 7,000 hectares (world); 500 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 1200-1900 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: most soils
Crop duration: 2 years (root), 1-4 years (fresh leaf)
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Sowing rate: 1-3kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring or late summer. Fresh leaf gathered as vegetable spring, summer and fall. Herb for drying harvested spring or summer. Roots dug late fall.
Field spacing: 45cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: dry root 1100-1700kg/ha (year 2).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: water-soluble extractive not less than 30%.
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Dill
(Anethum graveolens, A. sowa ) |
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Market
|
Products: (seed, herb); (leaf); (leaf, seed);
Market size: 37,000 hectares (world), 4,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices same, volume up
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|
Culture |
Seed density: 400-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, moderately rich, loose soil, pH 5.5-6.5
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 9-12 kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in spring.
Field spacing: 25-50cm between rows; thin to 10cm within rows for fresh herb production or 2-3cm within rows for seed production.
Yield: seed 600-900kg/ha, fresh herb 2500-5000kg/ha, dried herb 1000kg/ha, oil 50-110kg/ha.
Pests: aphid, tarnished plant bug
Diseases: powdery mildew, leafspot, aster yellows.
Buyers want: good green colour (dried leaf).
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Sowing rate: 15-40g/1000pots.
Planting: do not transplant; sow direct in pots, 8-20 seeds per pot.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: aphid
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Echinacea
(Echinacea purpurea, E. angustifolia, E. pallida ) |
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Market
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Products: (root, herb, flower, seed); (herb);
Market size: 16,000 hectares (world), 4,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices down, acreage up; market for E. purpurea herb is weak.
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Culture |
Seed density: 160-500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained, pH 6-7.5
Crop duration: 3-4 years
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Sowing rate: 14-18 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: E. purpurea seeds do not require pretreatment. Can be started in plugs and transplanted to the field, which is the preferred method, or can be sown direct in the field. Sow E. purpurea 100-120 days before field planting; sow E. angustifolia and E. pallida 150 days before planting. E. angustifolia and E. pallida germination benefits from pretreatment; stratify at 5°C for 4-12 weeks with light. Pretreatment with Ethrel (1 millimolar for 2 weeks), or with bleach (1% for 10 min.) improves E. angustifolia germination.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 20-45cm within rows.
Yield: E. purpurea herb 6,500-11,000kg/ha (years 2-4); E. purpurea root 1000kg/ha (year 4); E. angustifolia root 1100kg/ha (year 4); no data for E. pallida root.
Pests: leafhopper
Diseases: aster yellows (spread by leafhoppers), sclerotinia stem and root rot, botrytis.
Buyers want: certificate of botanical identity required for E. angustifolia; echinacoside 1.4% (roots).
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Sowing rate: 10g/1000plants.
Planting: sow 14 weeks (E. purpurea) to 22 weeks (E. angustifolia, E. pallida) before sale. Stratify or pretreat E. angustifolia and E. pallida seed before sowing (see above).
Seeds to finished plugs: 8-12 weeks (after pretreatment).
Plugs to saleable plants: 6-10 weeks.
Pests: few problems, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Elecampane
(Inula helenium ) |
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Market
|
Products: (root); (root);
Market size: 800 hectares (world), 25 ha (North America).
Prospects: prices same, volume same
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|
Culture |
Seed density: 600-800 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: moist, deep, well-drained
Crop duration: 2 years.
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Sowing rate: 400-600g/ha (direct); 5g/1000plants (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing not recommended. Start in plugs 8 weeks before spring or late summer field planting.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 45cm within rows.
Yield: 2500kg/ha (year 2).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: erysiphe powdery mildew (late summer), ramularia leafspot, puccinia rust.
Buyers want: not less than 1.8% volatile oil, not more than 6-8% ash, not less than 27% water-soluble extractive, not more than 2% foreign matter.
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Sowing rate: 5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs, seedflats or seed beds. Germination in 4-7 days.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 2-6 weeks.
Pests: spider mite, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Fennel
(Foeniculum vulgare) |
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Market
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Products: (seed); (leaf, bulb); (herb);
Market size: 70,000 hectares (world), 7,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 200-300 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, deep, moderately fertile, pH 7-8.
Crop duration: 2-3 years (florence fennel, 1 year)
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Sowing rate: 4-6kg/ha (direct), 30g/1000plants (indirect).
Planting: sow sweet fennel direct; bronze direct or indirect; florence indirect.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: seed 1000-1600kg/ha (years 2-3), fresh herb 8-10t/ha (year 1-3), dried herb 1.5-2.5t/ha (year 1-3), seed oil 40-75kg/ha.
Pests: aphid, lygus tarnished plant bug
Diseases: sclerotinia stemrot, rhizoctonia damping-off, erwinia soft rot.
Buyers want: not less than 2-4% volatile oil.
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Sowing rate: 30g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots or in plugs. Does not transplant well; best to sow direct.
Seeds to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3 weeks.
Pests: aphid
Diseases: damping-off.
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Fenugreek
(Trigonella foenum-graecum) |
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Market
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Products: (seeds, leaf, herb); (herb, sprouts); (seed)
Market size: 90,000 hectares (world), 7,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 100 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, warm soil
Crop duration: 1 year.
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Sowing rate: 25-35kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in spring. Broadcast or in close rows.
Field spacing: 20cm between rows x 10-20cm within rows.
Yield: seed 700-900kg/ha, dried forage 2-10t/ha.
Pests: no data
Diseases: no data.
Buyers want: swelling index not less than 6, foreign matter not more than 2-5%, ash not more than 5-6% (seed).
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Feverfew
(Tanacetum parthenium) |
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Market
|
Products: (herb);
Market size: 1,300 hectares (world), 160 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume down
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Culture |
Seed density: 7,500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained, dry soil
Crop duration: 1-2 years
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Sowing rate: 1-1.5 kg/ha (direct); 0.5g/1000plants.
Planting: plugs preferred over direct sowing because seeds very small. Sow plugs 8 weeks before spring planting date. Don't allow to go to seed to avoid winterkill. Frequent fertilization with low nitrogen fertilizer is beneficial. Long days trigger flowering. Short lived perennial; some growers treat as annual.
Field spacing: 20-90cm between rows x 10-20cm within rows.
Yield: 300-5000kg/ha (years 1-2).
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: minimum 0.4-0.8% parthenolide.
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Sowing rate: 0.5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow 14-16 weeks before sales in flats or plug trays.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6-8 weeks.
Pests: aphid, whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
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Scented Geranium
(Pelargonium spp. ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (leaf);
Market size: 4,000 hectares (world), 400 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 360-450 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, neutral to alkaline
Crop duration: 1 year temperate areas, 3-5 year in tropical areas.d o Planting: all commercially important varieties are propagated by cuttings. Plugs planted in spring after last frost date. FieldSpacing: 60-100cm between rows x 20-50cm within rows. Yield: fresh leaf 13-30t/ha, oil 13-17kg/ha (years 1-5). PestsDiseases: aphid, caterpillar / alternaria leaf spot.
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Seeds/ |
Planting: all commercially important varieties are propagated by cuttings. Plugs planted in spring after last frost date.
Field spacing: 60-100cm between rows x 20-50cm within rows.
Yield: fresh leaf 13-30t/ha, oil 13-17kg/ha (years 1-5).
Pests: aphid, caterpillar
Diseases: alternaria leaf spot.
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Sowing rate: 30-80g/1000 plants.
Planting: commercial propagation is by cutting only.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6-8 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, geranium and peach aphid, mite, mealybug, scale
Diseases: various leaf spots including xanthomonas, alternaria, botrytis.
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Gingko
(Ginkgo biloba ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (seed);
Market size: 5,000 hectares (world), 600 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 1 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: rich, well-drained, moist soil
Crop duration: 20-50+ years
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Sowing rate: 2-4kg/hectare.
Planting: seeds require stratification, 1-2 months warm, then 1-2 months cold, then sow in spring. Common nursery practice is to sow without stratification in outdoor seed beds in fall. Seedlings shaded for 2-3 years and fertilized with manure. Seedlings transplanted to permanent location when 7-8 years old. Trees kept short (2m) and spaced close (2-3m) in commercial plantations for medicinal leaf production; otherwise allowed to grow higher and spaced further for seed production. Slow growing. Leaves harvested in early fall as they begin to turn yellow; dried in sun. Fruits harvested late fall, seeds cleaned and roasted.
Field spacing: 3-5m apart (2-3m within rows for leaf production).
Yield: no data (leaf years 8-50, seed years 20-50).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: tolerates pollution.
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Sowing rate: 2-4kg/1000 plants.
Planting: stratify seed warm (1-2 months) followed by cold (1-2 months). Sow in deep plugs. Keep lightly shaded.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks to 1 year.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8 weeks (10cm pots), 2-5 years (larger plants).
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Ginseng
(Panax quinquefolius, P. ginseng; Eleutherococcus senticosus) |
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Market
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Products: (root)
Market size: Panax 70,000 hectares (world), 7,400 ha (North America)
Prospects: Panax prices down, volume up. Prospects for woodsgrown Panax much better than shadecloth grown.
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Culture |
Seed density: Panax 15; Eleutherococcus 100 seeds/gram
Exposure: Panax 70% shade; Eleutherococcus 30-50% shade
Soil: well-drained, sandy or clay loam, in raised beds, pH 5.5-6.0
Crop duration: Panax 3-4 years (shadecloth), 4-8 years (woodsgrown); Eleutherococcus 6-12 years
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Sowing rate: 40-100 kg/ha (shadecloth), 10-20 kg/ha (woodsgrown).
Planting: Panax seeds stratified one year. Sow stratified seeds in seedbeds and transplant seedlings to raised beds in years 1-2, or sow direct in raised beds. Mulch with straw. Remove shadecloth over winter. Eleutherococcus seeds need at least cycles of warm-cold stratification; best results obtained when sown in flats in fall and left out over winter under mulch.
Field spacing: Panax 15-20cm between rows x 15-20cm within rows, further apart in woodsgrown plantings; Eleutherococcus 60-100cm apart.
Yield: Panax (shadecloth) 3400kg/ha (years 3-4).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: Panax alternaria leaf blight, rhizoctonia wilt, phytophthora, powdery mildew; Eleutherococcus few problems.
Buyers want: ginsenosides not less than 1.5-2%, ash not more than 4-8%.
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Sowing rate: Panax 150g/1000 plants; Eleutherococcus 250g/1000plants.
Planting: sow stratified Panax seeds in deep plugs, 2-4 seeds per plug, or sow in seed flats. Provide shade, keep cool and well ventilated.
Seeds to finished plugs: Panax 6 months (after stratification).
Plugs to saleable plants: Panax 1 year.
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: Panax alternaria, rhizoctonia.
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Goldenseal
(Hydrastis canadensis) |
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Market
|
Products: (root);
Market size: 17,000 hectares (world), 7,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices down, volume up. Majority of market supplied by wildcrafted material, but wild stocks are becoming depleted and now listed on CITES.
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Culture |
Seed density: 50-55 seeds/gram
Exposure: 50-75% Shade
Soil: well-drained, deep, fertile soil, pH 5.5-6.5, in raised beds or on gentle slope.
Crop duration: 3-6 years
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Sowing rate: 10kg/ha (direct), 100g/1000 plants (indirect); rootlets 100,000/ha.
Planting: growers prefer rootlets over seeds because they are more reliable and quicker to harvestable size (3 years); however, seed quality has improved recently and cost of seeds is much less than rootlets. Seeds take 5-6 years to get harvestable roots. Seeds must not dry out; must be sown immediately after harvest in late summer to come up following spring. Avoid straw mulch and fertilize lightly.
Field spacing: 15-40cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: 900-2300kg/ha (year 3-6).
Pests: slugs
Diseases: alternaria, phytophthora, rhizoctonia, botrytis leafspot, fusarium.
Buyers want: min. alkaloids 3.5%.
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Sowing rate: seed 100g/1000plants, rootlets 300-1000/1000 plants.
Planting: for potted plant production, best to start with rootlets. Pot up rootlets 4 weeks before sale. Provide cool, shaded, and well-ventilated conditions; will not tolerate full sun and high humidity.
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: alternaria and other diseases common in potted plants in greenhouses.
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Lavender
(Lavandula angustifolia, L. x intermedia) |
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Market
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Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 9,000 hectares (world), 1,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 850-1300 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained, deep, not too rich, pH 6.5-7.5
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 3-6kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: lavandins (L. x intermedia; e.g. 'Provence' and 'Grosso'), best for commercial flower and oil production, are propagated vegetatively only. Only english types are available in seed form, but seed grown material may not be uniform enough for field production. Direct sowing not recommended; germination is too slow (15-30 days). Sow in seedflats 12-16 weeks before outdoor planting; transplant to plugs at 4-6 weeks, then transplant to field.
Field spacing: 60-120cm between rows x 25-120cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 500-1500kg/ha (years 2-5), oil 8-32kg/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: caterpillar, nematode
Diseases: phoma scab, septoria leaf spot, armillaria root rot.
Buyers want: 1.3% volatile oil or higher, good colour.
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Sowing rate: 5-10g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow 20-26 weeks before sale. Germination of english types (L. angustifolia) is frequently below 50%; scarification or freezing of seedflat can sometimes improve germination.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12-16 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8-10 weeks.
Pests: mealybug, whitefly, spider mite, scale
Diseases: few problems.
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Lemongrass
(Cymbopogon citratus, C. flexuosus) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (stem); (herb);
Market size: 50,000 hectares (world), 2,600 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: C. flexuosus 2000-2400 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, sandy loam, pH 5.5-6.5
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: C. flexuosus 5-10kg/ha (direct).
Planting: C. citratus grown from cuttings only. Sow C. flexuosus in spring. Heavy feeder. Oil quality of C. citratus highest at 18-24 months.
Field spacing: C. citratus 100cm between rows x 45cm within rows; broadcast C. flexuosus, or sow in rows 60-100cm apart.
Yield: C. citratus dry herb 4-6t/ha, oil 30-40kg/ha (years 1-5); C. flexuosus dry herb 10-15t/ha, 80kg/ha (years 1-5).
Pests: no data
Diseases: C. citratus himantia web blight, myriogenospora tangletop, helminthosperium eyespot, papularia.
Buyers want: high citral content.
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Sowing rate: 5g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow C. flexuosus in plugs 13-14 weeks before sale. C. citratus grown from cuttings only.
Seeds to finished plugs: 10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3-8 weeks.
Pests: spider mite, whitefly, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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Licorice
(Glycyrrhiza spp. ) |
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Market
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Products: (root);
Market size: 45,000 hectares (world), 480 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices down, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 400-600 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: deep, rich, moist, sandy, slightly alkaline, pH 7.3-7.8
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 3-4 kg/ha (direct), 5-10g/1000 plants (indirect).
Planting: soak seeds 2-3 hours in 30°C water or scarify before planting to weaken hard seed coat. Sow direct in spring or in deep plugs 12-16 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 70-90cm between rows x 45-90cm within rows.
Yield: G. glabra dry root 10-20t/ha (year 3-5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: uromyces rust, cercospora blight.
Buyers want: minimum 4% glycyrrhizinic acid, minimum 20% water soluble extractive.
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Sowing rate: 5-10g/1000plants.
Planting: soak seed in warm water (30°C) for 2-3 hours or scarify before sowing. Sow in flats or deep plugs 22-26 weeks before sale. Highly susceptible to damping-off; preventative application of damping-off control recommended.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12-16 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: damping-off.
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Lobelia
(Lobelia inflata ) |
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Market
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Products: (seed, herb);
Market size: 9,000 hectares (world), 1,700 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 30,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, rich soil
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 0.2-1kg/ha (direct), 0.1kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow in plugs or seedflats 12 weeks before field planting. Harvest herb when upper flowers are in bloom and lowest flowers have developed seed capsules when lobeline and lobelidine alkaloid content highest.
Field spacing: 30cm between rows x 15cm within rows.
Yield: dry herb 1100kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: wireworms
Diseases: cercospora, phyllosticta and septoria leaf spots.
Buyers want: no data.
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Sowing rate: 0.5g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow in plugs 14 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4-6 weeks.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
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Marjoram
(Origanum majorana) |
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Market
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Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 12,000 hectares (world), 800 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 3,500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, pH 6.5-7.5
Crop duration: 1 year (2-3 years in zone 9+)
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Sowing rate: 5-6kg/ha (direct), 0.2-0.3kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: requires warmth to do well; germinates best above 15°C daytime and 10°C nighttime. Sow direct in warmer zones; or sow indirect in plugs 12 weeks before field planting in cooler zones.
Field spacing: 30-40cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: 2.5-3t/ha (years 1-3).
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: botrytis gray mold, alternaria, puccinia rust, septoria.
Buyers want: no data.
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Sowing rate: 1g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or direct in pots 6-8 weeks before sale. Minimum 15°C days, 10°C nights.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 2-4 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite, thrip
Diseases: few problems.
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Chinese Milkvetch, Astragalus
(Astragalus membranaceus) |
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Market
|
Products: (root);
Market size: 1,700 hectares (world), 560 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 130-160 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, deep, moist, alkaline
Crop duration: 4-5 years
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Sowing rate: 6-8 kg/ha (direct), 3-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: can be started in deep plugs, but suffers transplant shock easily. Probably better to sow direct in field, in early spring or fall. Scarification helps speed germination. Harvested in fall, lateral roots trimmed, dried partially and then sliced 0.5 cm thick, and then further dried.
Field spacing: 75-100cm between rows x 25cm within rows.
Yield: 7000kg/ha (year 4-5).
Pests: no data
Diseases: unidentified root rot when in wet conditions.
Buyers want: no data.
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Sowing rate: 75g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow in deep plugs 19-20 weeks before sale; transplant before plugs are root-bound. Highly susceptible to mites.
Seeds to finished plugs: 10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 9 weeks.
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: damping-off.
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Alfalfa
(Medicago sativa ) |
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Market
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Products: (seeds, leaf, herb); (herb, sprouts)
Market size: (excluding acreage planted for fodder): 12,000 hectares (world); 5,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices and acreage up
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Culture |
Seed density: 350 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained; pH 6.0-7.5
Crop duration: 1-4 years
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(herb) |
Sowing rate: 9-13kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring, broadcast or sow in rows, 15-30cm apart. Two or more cuts at bud stage possible; last cut 6 weeks before killing frost. Heavy potash and phosphorus feeder.
Yield: dry herb 8-10,000kg/ha (years 1-4).
Pests: weevil, leafminer, leafhopper, snout beetle
Diseases: verticillium wilt, leafspot, phytophthora root rot.
Buyers want: organic product.
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(sprouts) |
Planting: soak seeds overnight; drain, keep moist. Ready in 3-5 days.
Yield: 4kg(sprouts)/kg(seeds).
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Arnica
(A. montana, A. chamissonis) |
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Market
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Products: (flower, root); (flower);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 160 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume down
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Culture |
Seed density: 700-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, humus-rich, pH 7 (A. chamissonis), pH 4.5-6 (A. montana)
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 1-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing not recommended. Sow in seedflats or plugs. Sow A. montana 16-20 weeks before transplanting to field; sow A. chamissonis 12 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 15-60cm between rows x 15-20cm within rows.
Harvest: flower (years 2-5), root (year 3 or 4).
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: chlorosis (yellow leaves) in A. montana caused by alkaline soil.
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Sowing rate: 8-10g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in seedflats or plugs 20 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8 weeks.
Pests: few problems, whitefly occasionally
Diseases: few problems.
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Lemon Balm
(Melissa officinalis) |
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Market
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Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 75 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 2000 seeds/gram
Exposure: sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained clay or sandy loam, pH 6 to 7.5
Crop duration: 2-4 years
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Sowing rate: 7-9kg/ha (direct), 250-400g/ha (indirect, in plugs).
Planting: sowing in plugs in greenhouse in early spring till mid-summer is most common method; sow 6-8 weeks before transplanting to field. Direct sowing is not as common because weed control is more difficult; sow in early spring or late fall (to come up next spring).
Field spacing: 50-75cm between rows x 18-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry herb 5000kg/ha, fresh herb 10-25t/ha (years 1-3).
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: erisyphe powdery mildew, septoria blight, puccinia rust.
Buyers want: dry carefully to conserve oil in dried herb.
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Sowing rate: 3-5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in flats or plugs 11-14 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spidermite, thrip
Diseases: mildew.
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Basil
(Ocimum basilicum, and others ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf, herb); (herb); (oil);
Market size: 10,000 hectares (world), 1,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 500-1000 (O. gratissimum 2600, O. kilamandscharicum 2800, O. sanctum 1500-2500) seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: rich, well-drained
Crop duration: 1 year (O. basilicum), 1-3 years (others)
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Sowing rate: 20kg/ha (direct); 3-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in spring when nighttime temperatures exceed 10°C; or sow in flats or plugs 8 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 15-25cm within rows.
Yield: fresh herb 15,000kg/ha, dry herb 1,500-2,000kg/ha, oil 30kg/ha (year 1)
Pests: aphids, thrips
Diseases: O. basilicum varieties are highly susceptible to fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum) disease. Disease persists in soil for several years. Commercial field plantings should be sown with fusarium-tolerant Nufar F1. Hydroponic operations may choose fusarium-free varieties if equipment and facilities are free of fusarium (spreads by contaminated seeds and equipment). Other basil species (e.g. O. americanum and O. gratissimum) are fusarium-tolerant.
Buyers want: not less than 0.4% essential oil in dried product.
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Sowing rate: 3-4g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in final pots, or in plugs and later transplant to final pots. Nighttime temperature must not go below 10°C.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, thrips, aphids
Diseases: fusarium (see above).
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Bay Laurel
(Laurus nobilis ) |
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Market
|
Products: (leaf); (leaf);
Market size: 2,000 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 1 seeds/gram
Exposure: sheltered position in full or half sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, moist
Crop duration: 20-50 years
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Sowing rate: 30-60kg/ha
Planting: sow stratified seeds in beds or flats.
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: leaves dried flat for visual appearance.
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Sowing rate: 5kg/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or flats in March or April.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks (after stratification).
Plugs to saleable plants: 10 weeks to a year.
Pests: whitefly, scale, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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Borage
(Borago officinalis ) |
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Market
|
Products: (seed, herb, flower, root); (herb, flower, root), (seed);
Market size: 5,000 hectares (world); 2,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, acreage up
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Culture |
Seed density: 50 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: best in well-drained, fertile, moist soil, but tolerates most soils, pH 5-8
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 5-17 kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in late spring in rows 45-90cm apart, 30-45cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 300kg/ha; fresh flower 1,000-5,000kg/ha; seed 90-450kg/ha.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: 24% gamma lineolenic acid content in seed oil.
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Sowing rate: 50-80g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots or plugs.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
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Burdock
(Arctium lappa) |
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Market
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Products: (root, leaf); (root);
Market size: 3,000 hectares (world), 170 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 60-110 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or part sun
Soil: deep, loose, humus-rich, pH 6-8
Crop duration: 1-2 years
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Sowing rate: 4 kg/ha (direct), 1.5kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring. Or, sow in beds or plugs and transplant to field in spring. For use as fresh vegetable, dig first year roots when young and tender at 3-5 months. For dry root production, dig in fall of second year.
Field spacing: 45-90cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry root 2,000kg/ha (years 2 or 3).
Pests: few problems, grasshopper
Diseases: few problems.
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Sowing rate: 20g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs 9-10 weeks before sale.
Seeds to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Calendula
(C. officinalis) |
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Market
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Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 880 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 150 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained; can tolerate poor soil with low nitrogen.
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 3-9kg/ha (direct), 1kg/ha (indirect in plugs).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring or autumn; or sow in plugs 4-6 weeks before field planting. Seeds need light to germinate; cover seeds lightly or press in soil only.
Field spacing: 20-70cm between rows x 10-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 1-2,000kg/ha, fresh flower 6-9,000kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: blister-beetle, cabbage-looper, caterpillar, leafhopper
Diseases: leaf spot, aster-yellows.
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Sowing rate: 15g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or direct in pots 10-12 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 4-6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, aphid, thrip, mealybug
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Caraway
(Carum carvi) |
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Market
|
Products: (seed); (seed)
Market size: 19,000 hectares (world), 2,500 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 350-400 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, pH 6-7.8.
Crop duration: 1-2 years (depending on variety)
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Sowing rate: 8-11 kg/ha.
Planting: sow standard biennial type direct in field late June or early July; harvest following year in August. Sow annual type in May (suited for warmer regions with 5-6 frost-free months). Sometimes sown with annual cover crops such as coriander, dill, mustard the first year.
Field spacing: 10-50cm between rows x 4-15cm within rows.
Yield: seed 600-3,000kg/ha, oil 4.5-7kg/ha (year 1 or 2, depending on variety).
Pests: leafhopper
Diseases: aster yellows.
Buyers want: seed minimum 3% oil, maximum 12% moisture.
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Catnip
(Nepeta cataria ) |
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Market
|
Products: (herb, leaf);
Market size: 2,400 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 1500-1600 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or partial sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, sandy, pH 6.5
Crop duration: 2-5 years
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Sowing rate: 12 kg/ha (direct), 1kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring or late fall. Or, sow in plugs 8-10 weeks before field planting. Seed needs light to germinate; sow shallow 2-4mm deep.
Field spacing: 45-90cm between rows x 30-40cm within rows.
Harvest: leaf, herb (years 2-5).
Yield: dry herb 3-6t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
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Sowing rate: 3g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or seedflats 12-15 weeks before sale. Sow 2-4mm deep.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8-10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3-5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
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Chamomile
(Matricaria recutita, Chamaemelum nobile ) |
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Market
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Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 40,000 hectares (world), 4,800 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 10,000-18,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained, moist to dry
Crop duration: 1 year (M. recutita), 2-3 years (C. nobile)
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Sowing rate: 3-4 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect)
Planting: german (M. recutita) is sown direct in field in spring or fall. Fall sowings germinate following spring. Roman (C. nobile) is sown direct or indirect in plugs which are later planted in field. Surface sow only (needs light to germinate). Hand harvesting flowers problematic in areas where labour cost is high; mechanical harvesting still unproven.
Field spacing: 10-50cm between rows x 10-25cm within rows, or broadcast sown.
Yield: dry flower 350-500kg/ha (M. recutita; year 1), 600-1000 kg/ha (C. nobile; years 1-3).
Pests: cnephasia moth
Diseases: aster yellows.
Buyers want: 0.4% or more volatile oil.
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Sowing rate: 1g/1000plants.
Planting: german (M. recutita) not normally sold in pots; roman (C. nobile) and its varieties are sold in pots or plugs. Seeds need light to germinate; surface sow only.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4-6 weeks.
Pests: aphid, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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Chives
(Allium schoenoprasum, A. tuberosum ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf, flower); (leaf, flower);
Market size: 24,000 hectares (world), 3,200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 750 (A. schoenoprasum), 200-300 (A. tuberosum) seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, humus-rich
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 2-3 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring, or sow indirect in plugs 12-16 weeks before field planting. Field must be free of quackgrass otherwise harvests will be contaminated.
Field spacing: 30cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: fresh leaf 10-20t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: aphid
Diseases: puccinia rust, downy mildew.
Buyers want: good green colour (dry leaf).
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Sowing rate: 5-20g/1000plants (A. schoenoprasum), 50g/1000plants (A. tuberosum)
Planting: sow 10-15 seeds per plug or pot, or sow same amount direct in pots.
Seeds to saleable plants: 24-30 weeks.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12-16 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 11 weeks.
Pests: aphid, thrip
Diseases: few problems.
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Comfrey
(Symphytum officinale, S. x uplandicum) |
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Market
|
Products: (leaf, root); (root, herb);
Market size: 1,700 hectares (world), 240 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 90-100 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or part sun
Soil: moist, wet or dry
Crop duration: 2-5 years
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Sowing rate: 600-900g/ha (indirect).
Planting: although seed can be sown direct, the high cost of seed dictates indirect sowing in plugs or seedbed and transplanting to field. Root cuttings (12,000/ha) of named cultivars (e.g. Bocking No. 14) recommended over seed.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 90cm within rows.
Yield: dry leaf 12t/ha (years 2-5), dry root 1,800kg/ha (year 3, 4 or 5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: comfrey rust.
Buyers want: low pyrrolizidine alkaloid content, particularly echimidine; leaf should be cut early to avoid alkaloid buildup.
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Sowing rate: 50-70g/1000plants.
Planting: sow S. officinale in plugs or seedflats 12-14 weeks before sale. S. x uplandicum and ornamental varieties are propagated by division or root cutting.
Seeds to saleable plants: 12 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, aphid
Diseases: comfrey rust.
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Coriander, Cilantro
(Coriandrum sativum) |
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Market
|
Products: (seed); (herb); (seed, herb);
Market size: 600,000 hectares (world), 5,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 110-150 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun (seed), full or half sun (fresh herb)
Soil: deep, fertile, light or heavy, well-drained, pH 6.5-7.5
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 25 kg/ha (seed), 80 kg/ha (fresh herb).
Planting: for seed and seed oil production, sow direct in spring. For fresh herb (cilantro) and herb oil production sow early spring and fall; will bolt in hot weather.
Field spacing: 50-60cm between rows x 11-13cm between plants (seed), 20-25cm between rows x 8-10cm (fresh herb).
Yield: seed 900-1,500kg/ha, fresh herb 10-12t/ha, oil 1-9kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: thrip
Diseases: asters yellow, erysiphe powdery mildew, puccinia rust, pseudamonas, and sclerotina.
Buyers want: less than 12% moisture.
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Sowing rate: 200g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots; do not transplant – root disturbance causes plants to bolt early.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: aphid, thrip, mite, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Dandelion
(Taraxacum officinale) |
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Market
|
Products: (root, herb); (leaf)
Market size: 7,000 hectares (world); 500 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 1200-1900 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: most soils
Crop duration: 2 years (root), 1-4 years (fresh leaf)
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Sowing rate: 1-3kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring or late summer. Fresh leaf gathered as vegetable spring, summer and fall. Herb for drying harvested spring or summer. Roots dug late fall.
Field spacing: 45cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: dry root 1100-1700kg/ha (year 2).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: water-soluble extractive not less than 30%.
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Dill
(Anethum graveolens, A. sowa ) |
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Market
|
Products: (seed, herb); (leaf); (leaf, seed);
Market size: 37,000 hectares (world), 4,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices same, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 400-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, moderately rich, loose soil, pH 5.5-6.5
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 9-12 kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in spring.
Field spacing: 25-50cm between rows; thin to 10cm within rows for fresh herb production or 2-3cm within rows for seed production.
Yield: seed 600-900kg/ha, fresh herb 2500-5000kg/ha, dried herb 1000kg/ha, oil 50-110kg/ha.
Pests: aphid, tarnished plant bug
Diseases: powdery mildew, leafspot, aster yellows.
Buyers want: good green colour (dried leaf).
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Sowing rate: 15-40g/1000pots.
Planting: do not transplant; sow direct in pots, 8-20 seeds per pot.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: aphid
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Echinacea
(Echinacea purpurea, E. angustifolia, E. pallida ) |
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Market
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Products: (root, herb, flower, seed); (herb);
Market size: 16,000 hectares (world), 4,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices down, acreage up; market for E. purpurea herb is weak.
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Culture |
Seed density: 160-500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained, pH 6-7.5
Crop duration: 3-4 years
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Sowing rate: 14-18 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: E. purpurea seeds do not require pretreatment. Can be started in plugs and transplanted to the field, which is the preferred method, or can be sown direct in the field. Sow E. purpurea 100-120 days before field planting; sow E. angustifolia and E. pallida 150 days before planting. E. angustifolia and E. pallida germination benefits from pretreatment; stratify at 5°C for 4-12 weeks with light. Pretreatment with Ethrel (1 millimolar for 2 weeks), or with bleach (1% for 10 min.) improves E. angustifolia germination.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 20-45cm within rows.
Yield: E. purpurea herb 6,500-11,000kg/ha (years 2-4); E. purpurea root 1000kg/ha (year 4); E. angustifolia root 1100kg/ha (year 4); no data for E. pallida root.
Pests: leafhopper
Diseases: aster yellows (spread by leafhoppers), sclerotinia stem and root rot, botrytis.
Buyers want: certificate of botanical identity required for E. angustifolia; echinacoside 1.4% (roots).
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Sowing rate: 10g/1000plants.
Planting: sow 14 weeks (E. purpurea) to 22 weeks (E. angustifolia, E. pallida) before sale. Stratify or pretreat E. angustifolia and E. pallida seed before sowing (see above).
Seeds to finished plugs: 8-12 weeks (after pretreatment).
Plugs to saleable plants: 6-10 weeks.
Pests: few problems, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Elecampane
(Inula helenium ) |
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Market
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Products: (root); (root);
Market size: 800 hectares (world), 25 ha (North America).
Prospects: prices same, volume same
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Culture |
Seed density: 600-800 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: moist, deep, well-drained
Crop duration: 2 years.
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Sowing rate: 400-600g/ha (direct); 5g/1000plants (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing not recommended. Start in plugs 8 weeks before spring or late summer field planting.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 45cm within rows.
Yield: 2500kg/ha (year 2).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: erysiphe powdery mildew (late summer), ramularia leafspot, puccinia rust.
Buyers want: not less than 1.8% volatile oil, not more than 6-8% ash, not less than 27% water-soluble extractive, not more than 2% foreign matter.
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Sowing rate: 5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs, seedflats or seed beds. Germination in 4-7 days.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 2-6 weeks.
Pests: spider mite, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Fennel
(Foeniculum vulgare) |
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Market
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Products: (seed); (leaf, bulb); (herb);
Market size: 70,000 hectares (world), 7,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 200-300 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, deep, moderately fertile, pH 7-8.
Crop duration: 2-3 years (florence fennel, 1 year)
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Sowing rate: 4-6kg/ha (direct), 30g/1000plants (indirect).
Planting: sow sweet fennel direct; bronze direct or indirect; florence indirect.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: seed 1000-1600kg/ha (years 2-3), fresh herb 8-10t/ha (year 1-3), dried herb 1.5-2.5t/ha (year 1-3), seed oil 40-75kg/ha.
Pests: aphid, lygus tarnished plant bug
Diseases: sclerotinia stemrot, rhizoctonia damping-off, erwinia soft rot.
Buyers want: not less than 2-4% volatile oil.
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Sowing rate: 30g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots or in plugs. Does not transplant well; best to sow direct.
Seeds to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3 weeks.
Pests: aphid
Diseases: damping-off.
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Fenugreek
(Trigonella foenum-graecum) |
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Market
|
Products: (seeds, leaf, herb); (herb, sprouts); (seed)
Market size: 90,000 hectares (world), 7,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 100 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, warm soil
Crop duration: 1 year.
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Sowing rate: 25-35kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in spring. Broadcast or in close rows.
Field spacing: 20cm between rows x 10-20cm within rows.
Yield: seed 700-900kg/ha, dried forage 2-10t/ha.
Pests: no data
Diseases: no data.
Buyers want: swelling index not less than 6, foreign matter not more than 2-5%, ash not more than 5-6% (seed).
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Feverfew
(Tanacetum parthenium) |
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Market
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Products: (herb);
Market size: 1,300 hectares (world), 160 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume down
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Culture |
Seed density: 7,500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained, dry soil
Crop duration: 1-2 years
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Sowing rate: 1-1.5 kg/ha (direct); 0.5g/1000plants.
Planting: plugs preferred over direct sowing because seeds very small. Sow plugs 8 weeks before spring planting date. Don't allow to go to seed to avoid winterkill. Frequent fertilization with low nitrogen fertilizer is beneficial. Long days trigger flowering. Short lived perennial; some growers treat as annual.
Field spacing: 20-90cm between rows x 10-20cm within rows.
Yield: 300-5000kg/ha (years 1-2).
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: minimum 0.4-0.8% parthenolide.
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Sowing rate: 0.5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow 14-16 weeks before sales in flats or plug trays.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6-8 weeks.
Pests: aphid, whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
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Scented Geranium
(Pelargonium spp. ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (leaf);
Market size: 4,000 hectares (world), 400 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 360-450 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, neutral to alkaline
Crop duration: 1 year temperate areas, 3-5 year in tropical areas.d o Planting: all commercially important varieties are propagated by cuttings. Plugs planted in spring after last frost date. FieldSpacing: 60-100cm between rows x 20-50cm within rows. Yield: fresh leaf 13-30t/ha, oil 13-17kg/ha (years 1-5). PestsDiseases: aphid, caterpillar / alternaria leaf spot.
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Seeds/ |
Planting: all commercially important varieties are propagated by cuttings. Plugs planted in spring after last frost date.
Field spacing: 60-100cm between rows x 20-50cm within rows.
Yield: fresh leaf 13-30t/ha, oil 13-17kg/ha (years 1-5).
Pests: aphid, caterpillar
Diseases: alternaria leaf spot.
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Sowing rate: 30-80g/1000 plants.
Planting: commercial propagation is by cutting only.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6-8 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, geranium and peach aphid, mite, mealybug, scale
Diseases: various leaf spots including xanthomonas, alternaria, botrytis.
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Gingko
(Ginkgo biloba ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (seed);
Market size: 5,000 hectares (world), 600 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 1 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: rich, well-drained, moist soil
Crop duration: 20-50+ years
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Sowing rate: 2-4kg/hectare.
Planting: seeds require stratification, 1-2 months warm, then 1-2 months cold, then sow in spring. Common nursery practice is to sow without stratification in outdoor seed beds in fall. Seedlings shaded for 2-3 years and fertilized with manure. Seedlings transplanted to permanent location when 7-8 years old. Trees kept short (2m) and spaced close (2-3m) in commercial plantations for medicinal leaf production; otherwise allowed to grow higher and spaced further for seed production. Slow growing. Leaves harvested in early fall as they begin to turn yellow; dried in sun. Fruits harvested late fall, seeds cleaned and roasted.
Field spacing: 3-5m apart (2-3m within rows for leaf production).
Yield: no data (leaf years 8-50, seed years 20-50).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: tolerates pollution.
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Sowing rate: 2-4kg/1000 plants.
Planting: stratify seed warm (1-2 months) followed by cold (1-2 months). Sow in deep plugs. Keep lightly shaded.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks to 1 year.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8 weeks (10cm pots), 2-5 years (larger plants).
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Ginseng
(Panax quinquefolius, P. ginseng; Eleutherococcus senticosus) |
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Market
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Products: (root)
Market size: Panax 70,000 hectares (world), 7,400 ha (North America)
Prospects: Panax prices down, volume up. Prospects for woodsgrown Panax much better than shadecloth grown.
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Culture |
Seed density: Panax 15; Eleutherococcus 100 seeds/gram
Exposure: Panax 70% shade; Eleutherococcus 30-50% shade
Soil: well-drained, sandy or clay loam, in raised beds, pH 5.5-6.0
Crop duration: Panax 3-4 years (shadecloth), 4-8 years (woodsgrown); Eleutherococcus 6-12 years
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Sowing rate: 40-100 kg/ha (shadecloth), 10-20 kg/ha (woodsgrown).
Planting: Panax seeds stratified one year. Sow stratified seeds in seedbeds and transplant seedlings to raised beds in years 1-2, or sow direct in raised beds. Mulch with straw. Remove shadecloth over winter. Eleutherococcus seeds need at least cycles of warm-cold stratification; best results obtained when sown in flats in fall and left out over winter under mulch.
Field spacing: Panax 15-20cm between rows x 15-20cm within rows, further apart in woodsgrown plantings; Eleutherococcus 60-100cm apart.
Yield: Panax (shadecloth) 3400kg/ha (years 3-4).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: Panax alternaria leaf blight, rhizoctonia wilt, phytophthora, powdery mildew; Eleutherococcus few problems.
Buyers want: ginsenosides not less than 1.5-2%, ash not more than 4-8%.
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Sowing rate: Panax 150g/1000 plants; Eleutherococcus 250g/1000plants.
Planting: sow stratified Panax seeds in deep plugs, 2-4 seeds per plug, or sow in seed flats. Provide shade, keep cool and well ventilated.
Seeds to finished plugs: Panax 6 months (after stratification).
Plugs to saleable plants: Panax 1 year.
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: Panax alternaria, rhizoctonia.
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Goldenseal
(Hydrastis canadensis) |
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Market
|
Products: (root);
Market size: 17,000 hectares (world), 7,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices down, volume up. Majority of market supplied by wildcrafted material, but wild stocks are becoming depleted and now listed on CITES.
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Culture |
Seed density: 50-55 seeds/gram
Exposure: 50-75% Shade
Soil: well-drained, deep, fertile soil, pH 5.5-6.5, in raised beds or on gentle slope.
Crop duration: 3-6 years
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Sowing rate: 10kg/ha (direct), 100g/1000 plants (indirect); rootlets 100,000/ha.
Planting: growers prefer rootlets over seeds because they are more reliable and quicker to harvestable size (3 years); however, seed quality has improved recently and cost of seeds is much less than rootlets. Seeds take 5-6 years to get harvestable roots. Seeds must not dry out; must be sown immediately after harvest in late summer to come up following spring. Avoid straw mulch and fertilize lightly.
Field spacing: 15-40cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: 900-2300kg/ha (year 3-6).
Pests: slugs
Diseases: alternaria, phytophthora, rhizoctonia, botrytis leafspot, fusarium.
Buyers want: min. alkaloids 3.5%.
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Sowing rate: seed 100g/1000plants, rootlets 300-1000/1000 plants.
Planting: for potted plant production, best to start with rootlets. Pot up rootlets 4 weeks before sale. Provide cool, shaded, and well-ventilated conditions; will not tolerate full sun and high humidity.
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: alternaria and other diseases common in potted plants in greenhouses.
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Lavender
(Lavandula angustifolia, L. x intermedia) |
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Market
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Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 9,000 hectares (world), 1,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 850-1300 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained, deep, not too rich, pH 6.5-7.5
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 3-6kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: lavandins (L. x intermedia; e.g. 'Provence' and 'Grosso'), best for commercial flower and oil production, are propagated vegetatively only. Only english types are available in seed form, but seed grown material may not be uniform enough for field production. Direct sowing not recommended; germination is too slow (15-30 days). Sow in seedflats 12-16 weeks before outdoor planting; transplant to plugs at 4-6 weeks, then transplant to field.
Field spacing: 60-120cm between rows x 25-120cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 500-1500kg/ha (years 2-5), oil 8-32kg/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: caterpillar, nematode
Diseases: phoma scab, septoria leaf spot, armillaria root rot.
Buyers want: 1.3% volatile oil or higher, good colour.
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Sowing rate: 5-10g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow 20-26 weeks before sale. Germination of english types (L. angustifolia) is frequently below 50%; scarification or freezing of seedflat can sometimes improve germination.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12-16 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8-10 weeks.
Pests: mealybug, whitefly, spider mite, scale
Diseases: few problems.
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Lemongrass
(Cymbopogon citratus, C. flexuosus) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (stem); (herb);
Market size: 50,000 hectares (world), 2,600 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: C. flexuosus 2000-2400 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, sandy loam, pH 5.5-6.5
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: C. flexuosus 5-10kg/ha (direct).
Planting: C. citratus grown from cuttings only. Sow C. flexuosus in spring. Heavy feeder. Oil quality of C. citratus highest at 18-24 months.
Field spacing: C. citratus 100cm between rows x 45cm within rows; broadcast C. flexuosus, or sow in rows 60-100cm apart.
Yield: C. citratus dry herb 4-6t/ha, oil 30-40kg/ha (years 1-5); C. flexuosus dry herb 10-15t/ha, 80kg/ha (years 1-5).
Pests: no data
Diseases: C. citratus himantia web blight, myriogenospora tangletop, helminthosperium eyespot, papularia.
Buyers want: high citral content.
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Sowing rate: 5g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow C. flexuosus in plugs 13-14 weeks before sale. C. citratus grown from cuttings only.
Seeds to finished plugs: 10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3-8 weeks.
Pests: spider mite, whitefly, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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Licorice
(Glycyrrhiza spp. ) |
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Market
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Products: (root);
Market size: 45,000 hectares (world), 480 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices down, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 400-600 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: deep, rich, moist, sandy, slightly alkaline, pH 7.3-7.8
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 3-4 kg/ha (direct), 5-10g/1000 plants (indirect).
Planting: soak seeds 2-3 hours in 30°C water or scarify before planting to weaken hard seed coat. Sow direct in spring or in deep plugs 12-16 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 70-90cm between rows x 45-90cm within rows.
Yield: G. glabra dry root 10-20t/ha (year 3-5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: uromyces rust, cercospora blight.
Buyers want: minimum 4% glycyrrhizinic acid, minimum 20% water soluble extractive.
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Sowing rate: 5-10g/1000plants.
Planting: soak seed in warm water (30°C) for 2-3 hours or scarify before sowing. Sow in flats or deep plugs 22-26 weeks before sale. Highly susceptible to damping-off; preventative application of damping-off control recommended.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12-16 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: damping-off.
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Lobelia
(Lobelia inflata ) |
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Market
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Products: (seed, herb);
Market size: 9,000 hectares (world), 1,700 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 30,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, rich soil
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 0.2-1kg/ha (direct), 0.1kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow in plugs or seedflats 12 weeks before field planting. Harvest herb when upper flowers are in bloom and lowest flowers have developed seed capsules when lobeline and lobelidine alkaloid content highest.
Field spacing: 30cm between rows x 15cm within rows.
Yield: dry herb 1100kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: wireworms
Diseases: cercospora, phyllosticta and septoria leaf spots.
Buyers want: no data.
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Sowing rate: 0.5g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow in plugs 14 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4-6 weeks.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
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Marjoram
(Origanum majorana) |
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Market
|
Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 12,000 hectares (world), 800 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 3,500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, pH 6.5-7.5
Crop duration: 1 year (2-3 years in zone 9+)
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Sowing rate: 5-6kg/ha (direct), 0.2-0.3kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: requires warmth to do well; germinates best above 15°C daytime and 10°C nighttime. Sow direct in warmer zones; or sow indirect in plugs 12 weeks before field planting in cooler zones.
Field spacing: 30-40cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: 2.5-3t/ha (years 1-3).
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: botrytis gray mold, alternaria, puccinia rust, septoria.
Buyers want: no data.
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Sowing rate: 1g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or direct in pots 6-8 weeks before sale. Minimum 15°C days, 10°C nights.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 2-4 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite, thrip
Diseases: few problems.
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Chinese Milkvetch, Astragalus
(Astragalus membranaceus) |
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Market
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Products: (root);
Market size: 1,700 hectares (world), 560 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 130-160 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, deep, moist, alkaline
Crop duration: 4-5 years
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Sowing rate: 6-8 kg/ha (direct), 3-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: can be started in deep plugs, but suffers transplant shock easily. Probably better to sow direct in field, in early spring or fall. Scarification helps speed germination. Harvested in fall, lateral roots trimmed, dried partially and then sliced 0.5 cm thick, and then further dried.
Field spacing: 75-100cm between rows x 25cm within rows.
Yield: 7000kg/ha (year 4-5).
Pests: no data
Diseases: unidentified root rot when in wet conditions.
Buyers want: no data.
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Sowing rate: 75g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow in deep plugs 19-20 weeks before sale; transplant before plugs are root-bound. Highly susceptible to mites.
Seeds to finished plugs: 10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 9 weeks.
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: damping-off.
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Mint
(Mentha spp.) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf, herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 240,000 hectares (world), 16,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 17,000-20,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: rich, moist, well-drained, pH 6.5-7
Crop duration: 2-3 years
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Sowing rate: 1 kg/ha (direct), 0.1-0.2kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: commercial plantings propagated vegetatively; seed not suitable because of poor oil quality. Root cuttings planted in early spring or fall. Fields must be rotated every 2-3 years to prevent disease buildup.
Field spacing: 40-90cm between rows x 15-45cm within rows.
Yield: peppermint herb oil 35-125kg/ha, fresh herb 10-25t/ha, dried herb 1-3t/ha (years 2-3).
Pests: nematode, aphid
Diseases: puccinia rust, verticillum wilt, leaf spot, sphaceloma spot anthracnose.
Buyers want: peppermint minimum 1-1.2% volatile oil, not more than 10% leaves spotted with puccinia rust, not more than 5% stems, 2% foreign matter or 11% water.
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Sowing rate: 0.5-1g/1000 plants.
Planting: most cultivars grown from cuttings. Seed material not recommended for pot plant sales.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite, aphid, mealybug
Diseases: rust.
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Alfalfa
(Medicago sativa ) |
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Market
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Products: (seeds, leaf, herb); (herb, sprouts)
Market size: (excluding acreage planted for fodder): 12,000 hectares (world); 5,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices and acreage up
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Culture |
Seed density: 350 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained; pH 6.0-7.5
Crop duration: 1-4 years
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(herb) |
Sowing rate: 9-13kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring, broadcast or sow in rows, 15-30cm apart. Two or more cuts at bud stage possible; last cut 6 weeks before killing frost. Heavy potash and phosphorus feeder.
Yield: dry herb 8-10,000kg/ha (years 1-4).
Pests: weevil, leafminer, leafhopper, snout beetle
Diseases: verticillium wilt, leafspot, phytophthora root rot.
Buyers want: organic product.
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(sprouts) |
Planting: soak seeds overnight; drain, keep moist. Ready in 3-5 days.
Yield: 4kg(sprouts)/kg(seeds).
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Arnica
(A. montana, A. chamissonis) |
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Market
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Products: (flower, root); (flower);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 160 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume down
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Culture |
Seed density: 700-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, humus-rich, pH 7 (A. chamissonis), pH 4.5-6 (A. montana)
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 1-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing not recommended. Sow in seedflats or plugs. Sow A. montana 16-20 weeks before transplanting to field; sow A. chamissonis 12 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 15-60cm between rows x 15-20cm within rows.
Harvest: flower (years 2-5), root (year 3 or 4).
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: chlorosis (yellow leaves) in A. montana caused by alkaline soil.
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Sowing rate: 8-10g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in seedflats or plugs 20 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8 weeks.
Pests: few problems, whitefly occasionally
Diseases: few problems.
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Lemon Balm
(Melissa officinalis) |
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Market
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Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 75 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 2000 seeds/gram
Exposure: sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained clay or sandy loam, pH 6 to 7.5
Crop duration: 2-4 years
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Sowing rate: 7-9kg/ha (direct), 250-400g/ha (indirect, in plugs).
Planting: sowing in plugs in greenhouse in early spring till mid-summer is most common method; sow 6-8 weeks before transplanting to field. Direct sowing is not as common because weed control is more difficult; sow in early spring or late fall (to come up next spring).
Field spacing: 50-75cm between rows x 18-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry herb 5000kg/ha, fresh herb 10-25t/ha (years 1-3).
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: erisyphe powdery mildew, septoria blight, puccinia rust.
Buyers want: dry carefully to conserve oil in dried herb.
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Sowing rate: 3-5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in flats or plugs 11-14 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spidermite, thrip
Diseases: mildew.
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Basil
(Ocimum basilicum, and others ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf, herb); (herb); (oil);
Market size: 10,000 hectares (world), 1,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 500-1000 (O. gratissimum 2600, O. kilamandscharicum 2800, O. sanctum 1500-2500) seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: rich, well-drained
Crop duration: 1 year (O. basilicum), 1-3 years (others)
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Sowing rate: 20kg/ha (direct); 3-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in spring when nighttime temperatures exceed 10°C; or sow in flats or plugs 8 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 15-25cm within rows.
Yield: fresh herb 15,000kg/ha, dry herb 1,500-2,000kg/ha, oil 30kg/ha (year 1)
Pests: aphids, thrips
Diseases: O. basilicum varieties are highly susceptible to fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum) disease. Disease persists in soil for several years. Commercial field plantings should be sown with fusarium-tolerant Nufar F1. Hydroponic operations may choose fusarium-free varieties if equipment and facilities are free of fusarium (spreads by contaminated seeds and equipment). Other basil species (e.g. O. americanum and O. gratissimum) are fusarium-tolerant.
Buyers want: not less than 0.4% essential oil in dried product.
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Sowing rate: 3-4g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in final pots, or in plugs and later transplant to final pots. Nighttime temperature must not go below 10°C.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, thrips, aphids
Diseases: fusarium (see above).
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Bay Laurel
(Laurus nobilis ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (leaf);
Market size: 2,000 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 1 seeds/gram
Exposure: sheltered position in full or half sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, moist
Crop duration: 20-50 years
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Sowing rate: 30-60kg/ha
Planting: sow stratified seeds in beds or flats.
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: leaves dried flat for visual appearance.
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Sowing rate: 5kg/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or flats in March or April.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks (after stratification).
Plugs to saleable plants: 10 weeks to a year.
Pests: whitefly, scale, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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Borage
(Borago officinalis ) |
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Market
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Products: (seed, herb, flower, root); (herb, flower, root), (seed);
Market size: 5,000 hectares (world); 2,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, acreage up
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Culture |
Seed density: 50 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: best in well-drained, fertile, moist soil, but tolerates most soils, pH 5-8
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 5-17 kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in late spring in rows 45-90cm apart, 30-45cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 300kg/ha; fresh flower 1,000-5,000kg/ha; seed 90-450kg/ha.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: 24% gamma lineolenic acid content in seed oil.
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Sowing rate: 50-80g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots or plugs.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
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Burdock
(Arctium lappa) |
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Market
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Products: (root, leaf); (root);
Market size: 3,000 hectares (world), 170 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 60-110 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or part sun
Soil: deep, loose, humus-rich, pH 6-8
Crop duration: 1-2 years
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Sowing rate: 4 kg/ha (direct), 1.5kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring. Or, sow in beds or plugs and transplant to field in spring. For use as fresh vegetable, dig first year roots when young and tender at 3-5 months. For dry root production, dig in fall of second year.
Field spacing: 45-90cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry root 2,000kg/ha (years 2 or 3).
Pests: few problems, grasshopper
Diseases: few problems.
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Sowing rate: 20g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs 9-10 weeks before sale.
Seeds to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Calendula
(C. officinalis) |
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Market
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Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 880 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 150 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained; can tolerate poor soil with low nitrogen.
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 3-9kg/ha (direct), 1kg/ha (indirect in plugs).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring or autumn; or sow in plugs 4-6 weeks before field planting. Seeds need light to germinate; cover seeds lightly or press in soil only.
Field spacing: 20-70cm between rows x 10-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 1-2,000kg/ha, fresh flower 6-9,000kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: blister-beetle, cabbage-looper, caterpillar, leafhopper
Diseases: leaf spot, aster-yellows.
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Sowing rate: 15g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or direct in pots 10-12 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 4-6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, aphid, thrip, mealybug
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Caraway
(Carum carvi) |
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Market
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Products: (seed); (seed)
Market size: 19,000 hectares (world), 2,500 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 350-400 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, pH 6-7.8.
Crop duration: 1-2 years (depending on variety)
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Sowing rate: 8-11 kg/ha.
Planting: sow standard biennial type direct in field late June or early July; harvest following year in August. Sow annual type in May (suited for warmer regions with 5-6 frost-free months). Sometimes sown with annual cover crops such as coriander, dill, mustard the first year.
Field spacing: 10-50cm between rows x 4-15cm within rows.
Yield: seed 600-3,000kg/ha, oil 4.5-7kg/ha (year 1 or 2, depending on variety).
Pests: leafhopper
Diseases: aster yellows.
Buyers want: seed minimum 3% oil, maximum 12% moisture.
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Catnip
(Nepeta cataria ) |
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Market
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Products: (herb, leaf);
Market size: 2,400 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 1500-1600 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or partial sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, sandy, pH 6.5
Crop duration: 2-5 years
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Sowing rate: 12 kg/ha (direct), 1kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring or late fall. Or, sow in plugs 8-10 weeks before field planting. Seed needs light to germinate; sow shallow 2-4mm deep.
Field spacing: 45-90cm between rows x 30-40cm within rows.
Harvest: leaf, herb (years 2-5).
Yield: dry herb 3-6t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
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Sowing rate: 3g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or seedflats 12-15 weeks before sale. Sow 2-4mm deep.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8-10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3-5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
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Chamomile
(Matricaria recutita, Chamaemelum nobile ) |
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Market
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Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 40,000 hectares (world), 4,800 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 10,000-18,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained, moist to dry
Crop duration: 1 year (M. recutita), 2-3 years (C. nobile)
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Sowing rate: 3-4 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect)
Planting: german (M. recutita) is sown direct in field in spring or fall. Fall sowings germinate following spring. Roman (C. nobile) is sown direct or indirect in plugs which are later planted in field. Surface sow only (needs light to germinate). Hand harvesting flowers problematic in areas where labour cost is high; mechanical harvesting still unproven.
Field spacing: 10-50cm between rows x 10-25cm within rows, or broadcast sown.
Yield: dry flower 350-500kg/ha (M. recutita; year 1), 600-1000 kg/ha (C. nobile; years 1-3).
Pests: cnephasia moth
Diseases: aster yellows.
Buyers want: 0.4% or more volatile oil.
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Sowing rate: 1g/1000plants.
Planting: german (M. recutita) not normally sold in pots; roman (C. nobile) and its varieties are sold in pots or plugs. Seeds need light to germinate; surface sow only.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4-6 weeks.
Pests: aphid, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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Chives
(Allium schoenoprasum, A. tuberosum ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf, flower); (leaf, flower);
Market size: 24,000 hectares (world), 3,200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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|
Culture |
Seed density: 750 (A. schoenoprasum), 200-300 (A. tuberosum) seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, humus-rich
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 2-3 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring, or sow indirect in plugs 12-16 weeks before field planting. Field must be free of quackgrass otherwise harvests will be contaminated.
Field spacing: 30cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: fresh leaf 10-20t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: aphid
Diseases: puccinia rust, downy mildew.
Buyers want: good green colour (dry leaf).
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Sowing rate: 5-20g/1000plants (A. schoenoprasum), 50g/1000plants (A. tuberosum)
Planting: sow 10-15 seeds per plug or pot, or sow same amount direct in pots.
Seeds to saleable plants: 24-30 weeks.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12-16 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 11 weeks.
Pests: aphid, thrip
Diseases: few problems.
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Comfrey
(Symphytum officinale, S. x uplandicum) |
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Market
|
Products: (leaf, root); (root, herb);
Market size: 1,700 hectares (world), 240 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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|
Culture |
Seed density: 90-100 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or part sun
Soil: moist, wet or dry
Crop duration: 2-5 years
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|
Sowing rate: 600-900g/ha (indirect).
Planting: although seed can be sown direct, the high cost of seed dictates indirect sowing in plugs or seedbed and transplanting to field. Root cuttings (12,000/ha) of named cultivars (e.g. Bocking No. 14) recommended over seed.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 90cm within rows.
Yield: dry leaf 12t/ha (years 2-5), dry root 1,800kg/ha (year 3, 4 or 5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: comfrey rust.
Buyers want: low pyrrolizidine alkaloid content, particularly echimidine; leaf should be cut early to avoid alkaloid buildup.
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Sowing rate: 50-70g/1000plants.
Planting: sow S. officinale in plugs or seedflats 12-14 weeks before sale. S. x uplandicum and ornamental varieties are propagated by division or root cutting.
Seeds to saleable plants: 12 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, aphid
Diseases: comfrey rust.
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Coriander, Cilantro
(Coriandrum sativum) |
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Market
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Products: (seed); (herb); (seed, herb);
Market size: 600,000 hectares (world), 5,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 110-150 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun (seed), full or half sun (fresh herb)
Soil: deep, fertile, light or heavy, well-drained, pH 6.5-7.5
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 25 kg/ha (seed), 80 kg/ha (fresh herb).
Planting: for seed and seed oil production, sow direct in spring. For fresh herb (cilantro) and herb oil production sow early spring and fall; will bolt in hot weather.
Field spacing: 50-60cm between rows x 11-13cm between plants (seed), 20-25cm between rows x 8-10cm (fresh herb).
Yield: seed 900-1,500kg/ha, fresh herb 10-12t/ha, oil 1-9kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: thrip
Diseases: asters yellow, erysiphe powdery mildew, puccinia rust, pseudamonas, and sclerotina.
Buyers want: less than 12% moisture.
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Sowing rate: 200g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots; do not transplant – root disturbance causes plants to bolt early.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: aphid, thrip, mite, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Dandelion
(Taraxacum officinale) |
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Market
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Products: (root, herb); (leaf)
Market size: 7,000 hectares (world); 500 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 1200-1900 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: most soils
Crop duration: 2 years (root), 1-4 years (fresh leaf)
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Sowing rate: 1-3kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring or late summer. Fresh leaf gathered as vegetable spring, summer and fall. Herb for drying harvested spring or summer. Roots dug late fall.
Field spacing: 45cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: dry root 1100-1700kg/ha (year 2).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: water-soluble extractive not less than 30%.
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Dill
(Anethum graveolens, A. sowa ) |
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Market
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Products: (seed, herb); (leaf); (leaf, seed);
Market size: 37,000 hectares (world), 4,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices same, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 400-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, moderately rich, loose soil, pH 5.5-6.5
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 9-12 kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in spring.
Field spacing: 25-50cm between rows; thin to 10cm within rows for fresh herb production or 2-3cm within rows for seed production.
Yield: seed 600-900kg/ha, fresh herb 2500-5000kg/ha, dried herb 1000kg/ha, oil 50-110kg/ha.
Pests: aphid, tarnished plant bug
Diseases: powdery mildew, leafspot, aster yellows.
Buyers want: good green colour (dried leaf).
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Sowing rate: 15-40g/1000pots.
Planting: do not transplant; sow direct in pots, 8-20 seeds per pot.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: aphid
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Echinacea
(Echinacea purpurea, E. angustifolia, E. pallida ) |
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Market
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Products: (root, herb, flower, seed); (herb);
Market size: 16,000 hectares (world), 4,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices down, acreage up; market for E. purpurea herb is weak.
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Culture |
Seed density: 160-500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained, pH 6-7.5
Crop duration: 3-4 years
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Sowing rate: 14-18 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: E. purpurea seeds do not require pretreatment. Can be started in plugs and transplanted to the field, which is the preferred method, or can be sown direct in the field. Sow E. purpurea 100-120 days before field planting; sow E. angustifolia and E. pallida 150 days before planting. E. angustifolia and E. pallida germination benefits from pretreatment; stratify at 5°C for 4-12 weeks with light. Pretreatment with Ethrel (1 millimolar for 2 weeks), or with bleach (1% for 10 min.) improves E. angustifolia germination.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 20-45cm within rows.
Yield: E. purpurea herb 6,500-11,000kg/ha (years 2-4); E. purpurea root 1000kg/ha (year 4); E. angustifolia root 1100kg/ha (year 4); no data for E. pallida root.
Pests: leafhopper
Diseases: aster yellows (spread by leafhoppers), sclerotinia stem and root rot, botrytis.
Buyers want: certificate of botanical identity required for E. angustifolia; echinacoside 1.4% (roots).
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Sowing rate: 10g/1000plants.
Planting: sow 14 weeks (E. purpurea) to 22 weeks (E. angustifolia, E. pallida) before sale. Stratify or pretreat E. angustifolia and E. pallida seed before sowing (see above).
Seeds to finished plugs: 8-12 weeks (after pretreatment).
Plugs to saleable plants: 6-10 weeks.
Pests: few problems, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Elecampane
(Inula helenium ) |
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Market
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Products: (root); (root);
Market size: 800 hectares (world), 25 ha (North America).
Prospects: prices same, volume same
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Culture |
Seed density: 600-800 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: moist, deep, well-drained
Crop duration: 2 years.
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Sowing rate: 400-600g/ha (direct); 5g/1000plants (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing not recommended. Start in plugs 8 weeks before spring or late summer field planting.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 45cm within rows.
Yield: 2500kg/ha (year 2).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: erysiphe powdery mildew (late summer), ramularia leafspot, puccinia rust.
Buyers want: not less than 1.8% volatile oil, not more than 6-8% ash, not less than 27% water-soluble extractive, not more than 2% foreign matter.
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Sowing rate: 5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs, seedflats or seed beds. Germination in 4-7 days.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 2-6 weeks.
Pests: spider mite, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Fennel
(Foeniculum vulgare) |
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Market
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Products: (seed); (leaf, bulb); (herb);
Market size: 70,000 hectares (world), 7,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 200-300 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, deep, moderately fertile, pH 7-8.
Crop duration: 2-3 years (florence fennel, 1 year)
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Sowing rate: 4-6kg/ha (direct), 30g/1000plants (indirect).
Planting: sow sweet fennel direct; bronze direct or indirect; florence indirect.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: seed 1000-1600kg/ha (years 2-3), fresh herb 8-10t/ha (year 1-3), dried herb 1.5-2.5t/ha (year 1-3), seed oil 40-75kg/ha.
Pests: aphid, lygus tarnished plant bug
Diseases: sclerotinia stemrot, rhizoctonia damping-off, erwinia soft rot.
Buyers want: not less than 2-4% volatile oil.
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Sowing rate: 30g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots or in plugs. Does not transplant well; best to sow direct.
Seeds to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3 weeks.
Pests: aphid
Diseases: damping-off.
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Fenugreek
(Trigonella foenum-graecum) |
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Market
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Products: (seeds, leaf, herb); (herb, sprouts); (seed)
Market size: 90,000 hectares (world), 7,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 100 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, warm soil
Crop duration: 1 year.
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Sowing rate: 25-35kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in spring. Broadcast or in close rows.
Field spacing: 20cm between rows x 10-20cm within rows.
Yield: seed 700-900kg/ha, dried forage 2-10t/ha.
Pests: no data
Diseases: no data.
Buyers want: swelling index not less than 6, foreign matter not more than 2-5%, ash not more than 5-6% (seed).
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Feverfew
(Tanacetum parthenium) |
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Market
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Products: (herb);
Market size: 1,300 hectares (world), 160 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume down
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Culture |
Seed density: 7,500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained, dry soil
Crop duration: 1-2 years
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Sowing rate: 1-1.5 kg/ha (direct); 0.5g/1000plants.
Planting: plugs preferred over direct sowing because seeds very small. Sow plugs 8 weeks before spring planting date. Don't allow to go to seed to avoid winterkill. Frequent fertilization with low nitrogen fertilizer is beneficial. Long days trigger flowering. Short lived perennial; some growers treat as annual.
Field spacing: 20-90cm between rows x 10-20cm within rows.
Yield: 300-5000kg/ha (years 1-2).
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: minimum 0.4-0.8% parthenolide.
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Sowing rate: 0.5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow 14-16 weeks before sales in flats or plug trays.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6-8 weeks.
Pests: aphid, whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
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Scented Geranium
(Pelargonium spp. ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (leaf);
Market size: 4,000 hectares (world), 400 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 360-450 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, neutral to alkaline
Crop duration: 1 year temperate areas, 3-5 year in tropical areas.d o Planting: all commercially important varieties are propagated by cuttings. Plugs planted in spring after last frost date. FieldSpacing: 60-100cm between rows x 20-50cm within rows. Yield: fresh leaf 13-30t/ha, oil 13-17kg/ha (years 1-5). PestsDiseases: aphid, caterpillar / alternaria leaf spot.
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Seeds/ |
Planting: all commercially important varieties are propagated by cuttings. Plugs planted in spring after last frost date.
Field spacing: 60-100cm between rows x 20-50cm within rows.
Yield: fresh leaf 13-30t/ha, oil 13-17kg/ha (years 1-5).
Pests: aphid, caterpillar
Diseases: alternaria leaf spot.
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Sowing rate: 30-80g/1000 plants.
Planting: commercial propagation is by cutting only.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6-8 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, geranium and peach aphid, mite, mealybug, scale
Diseases: various leaf spots including xanthomonas, alternaria, botrytis.
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Gingko
(Ginkgo biloba ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (seed);
Market size: 5,000 hectares (world), 600 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 1 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: rich, well-drained, moist soil
Crop duration: 20-50+ years
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Sowing rate: 2-4kg/hectare.
Planting: seeds require stratification, 1-2 months warm, then 1-2 months cold, then sow in spring. Common nursery practice is to sow without stratification in outdoor seed beds in fall. Seedlings shaded for 2-3 years and fertilized with manure. Seedlings transplanted to permanent location when 7-8 years old. Trees kept short (2m) and spaced close (2-3m) in commercial plantations for medicinal leaf production; otherwise allowed to grow higher and spaced further for seed production. Slow growing. Leaves harvested in early fall as they begin to turn yellow; dried in sun. Fruits harvested late fall, seeds cleaned and roasted.
Field spacing: 3-5m apart (2-3m within rows for leaf production).
Yield: no data (leaf years 8-50, seed years 20-50).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: tolerates pollution.
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Sowing rate: 2-4kg/1000 plants.
Planting: stratify seed warm (1-2 months) followed by cold (1-2 months). Sow in deep plugs. Keep lightly shaded.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks to 1 year.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8 weeks (10cm pots), 2-5 years (larger plants).
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Ginseng
(Panax quinquefolius, P. ginseng; Eleutherococcus senticosus) |
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Market
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Products: (root)
Market size: Panax 70,000 hectares (world), 7,400 ha (North America)
Prospects: Panax prices down, volume up. Prospects for woodsgrown Panax much better than shadecloth grown.
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Culture |
Seed density: Panax 15; Eleutherococcus 100 seeds/gram
Exposure: Panax 70% shade; Eleutherococcus 30-50% shade
Soil: well-drained, sandy or clay loam, in raised beds, pH 5.5-6.0
Crop duration: Panax 3-4 years (shadecloth), 4-8 years (woodsgrown); Eleutherococcus 6-12 years
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Sowing rate: 40-100 kg/ha (shadecloth), 10-20 kg/ha (woodsgrown).
Planting: Panax seeds stratified one year. Sow stratified seeds in seedbeds and transplant seedlings to raised beds in years 1-2, or sow direct in raised beds. Mulch with straw. Remove shadecloth over winter. Eleutherococcus seeds need at least cycles of warm-cold stratification; best results obtained when sown in flats in fall and left out over winter under mulch.
Field spacing: Panax 15-20cm between rows x 15-20cm within rows, further apart in woodsgrown plantings; Eleutherococcus 60-100cm apart.
Yield: Panax (shadecloth) 3400kg/ha (years 3-4).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: Panax alternaria leaf blight, rhizoctonia wilt, phytophthora, powdery mildew; Eleutherococcus few problems.
Buyers want: ginsenosides not less than 1.5-2%, ash not more than 4-8%.
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Sowing rate: Panax 150g/1000 plants; Eleutherococcus 250g/1000plants.
Planting: sow stratified Panax seeds in deep plugs, 2-4 seeds per plug, or sow in seed flats. Provide shade, keep cool and well ventilated.
Seeds to finished plugs: Panax 6 months (after stratification).
Plugs to saleable plants: Panax 1 year.
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: Panax alternaria, rhizoctonia.
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Goldenseal
(Hydrastis canadensis) |
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Market
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Products: (root);
Market size: 17,000 hectares (world), 7,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices down, volume up. Majority of market supplied by wildcrafted material, but wild stocks are becoming depleted and now listed on CITES.
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Culture |
Seed density: 50-55 seeds/gram
Exposure: 50-75% Shade
Soil: well-drained, deep, fertile soil, pH 5.5-6.5, in raised beds or on gentle slope.
Crop duration: 3-6 years
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Sowing rate: 10kg/ha (direct), 100g/1000 plants (indirect); rootlets 100,000/ha.
Planting: growers prefer rootlets over seeds because they are more reliable and quicker to harvestable size (3 years); however, seed quality has improved recently and cost of seeds is much less than rootlets. Seeds take 5-6 years to get harvestable roots. Seeds must not dry out; must be sown immediately after harvest in late summer to come up following spring. Avoid straw mulch and fertilize lightly.
Field spacing: 15-40cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: 900-2300kg/ha (year 3-6).
Pests: slugs
Diseases: alternaria, phytophthora, rhizoctonia, botrytis leafspot, fusarium.
Buyers want: min. alkaloids 3.5%.
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Sowing rate: seed 100g/1000plants, rootlets 300-1000/1000 plants.
Planting: for potted plant production, best to start with rootlets. Pot up rootlets 4 weeks before sale. Provide cool, shaded, and well-ventilated conditions; will not tolerate full sun and high humidity.
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: alternaria and other diseases common in potted plants in greenhouses.
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Lavender
(Lavandula angustifolia, L. x intermedia) |
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Market
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Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 9,000 hectares (world), 1,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 850-1300 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained, deep, not too rich, pH 6.5-7.5
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 3-6kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: lavandins (L. x intermedia; e.g. 'Provence' and 'Grosso'), best for commercial flower and oil production, are propagated vegetatively only. Only english types are available in seed form, but seed grown material may not be uniform enough for field production. Direct sowing not recommended; germination is too slow (15-30 days). Sow in seedflats 12-16 weeks before outdoor planting; transplant to plugs at 4-6 weeks, then transplant to field.
Field spacing: 60-120cm between rows x 25-120cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 500-1500kg/ha (years 2-5), oil 8-32kg/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: caterpillar, nematode
Diseases: phoma scab, septoria leaf spot, armillaria root rot.
Buyers want: 1.3% volatile oil or higher, good colour.
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Sowing rate: 5-10g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow 20-26 weeks before sale. Germination of english types (L. angustifolia) is frequently below 50%; scarification or freezing of seedflat can sometimes improve germination.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12-16 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8-10 weeks.
Pests: mealybug, whitefly, spider mite, scale
Diseases: few problems.
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Lemongrass
(Cymbopogon citratus, C. flexuosus) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (stem); (herb);
Market size: 50,000 hectares (world), 2,600 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: C. flexuosus 2000-2400 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, sandy loam, pH 5.5-6.5
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: C. flexuosus 5-10kg/ha (direct).
Planting: C. citratus grown from cuttings only. Sow C. flexuosus in spring. Heavy feeder. Oil quality of C. citratus highest at 18-24 months.
Field spacing: C. citratus 100cm between rows x 45cm within rows; broadcast C. flexuosus, or sow in rows 60-100cm apart.
Yield: C. citratus dry herb 4-6t/ha, oil 30-40kg/ha (years 1-5); C. flexuosus dry herb 10-15t/ha, 80kg/ha (years 1-5).
Pests: no data
Diseases: C. citratus himantia web blight, myriogenospora tangletop, helminthosperium eyespot, papularia.
Buyers want: high citral content.
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Sowing rate: 5g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow C. flexuosus in plugs 13-14 weeks before sale. C. citratus grown from cuttings only.
Seeds to finished plugs: 10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3-8 weeks.
Pests: spider mite, whitefly, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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Licorice
(Glycyrrhiza spp. ) |
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Market
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Products: (root);
Market size: 45,000 hectares (world), 480 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices down, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 400-600 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: deep, rich, moist, sandy, slightly alkaline, pH 7.3-7.8
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 3-4 kg/ha (direct), 5-10g/1000 plants (indirect).
Planting: soak seeds 2-3 hours in 30°C water or scarify before planting to weaken hard seed coat. Sow direct in spring or in deep plugs 12-16 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 70-90cm between rows x 45-90cm within rows.
Yield: G. glabra dry root 10-20t/ha (year 3-5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: uromyces rust, cercospora blight.
Buyers want: minimum 4% glycyrrhizinic acid, minimum 20% water soluble extractive.
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Sowing rate: 5-10g/1000plants.
Planting: soak seed in warm water (30°C) for 2-3 hours or scarify before sowing. Sow in flats or deep plugs 22-26 weeks before sale. Highly susceptible to damping-off; preventative application of damping-off control recommended.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12-16 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: damping-off.
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Lobelia
(Lobelia inflata ) |
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Market
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Products: (seed, herb);
Market size: 9,000 hectares (world), 1,700 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 30,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, rich soil
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 0.2-1kg/ha (direct), 0.1kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow in plugs or seedflats 12 weeks before field planting. Harvest herb when upper flowers are in bloom and lowest flowers have developed seed capsules when lobeline and lobelidine alkaloid content highest.
Field spacing: 30cm between rows x 15cm within rows.
Yield: dry herb 1100kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: wireworms
Diseases: cercospora, phyllosticta and septoria leaf spots.
Buyers want: no data.
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Sowing rate: 0.5g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow in plugs 14 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4-6 weeks.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
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Marjoram
(Origanum majorana) |
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Market
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Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 12,000 hectares (world), 800 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 3,500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, pH 6.5-7.5
Crop duration: 1 year (2-3 years in zone 9+)
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Sowing rate: 5-6kg/ha (direct), 0.2-0.3kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: requires warmth to do well; germinates best above 15°C daytime and 10°C nighttime. Sow direct in warmer zones; or sow indirect in plugs 12 weeks before field planting in cooler zones.
Field spacing: 30-40cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: 2.5-3t/ha (years 1-3).
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: botrytis gray mold, alternaria, puccinia rust, septoria.
Buyers want: no data.
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Sowing rate: 1g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or direct in pots 6-8 weeks before sale. Minimum 15°C days, 10°C nights.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 2-4 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite, thrip
Diseases: few problems.
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Chinese Milkvetch, Astragalus
(Astragalus membranaceus) |
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Market
|
Products: (root);
Market size: 1,700 hectares (world), 560 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 130-160 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, deep, moist, alkaline
Crop duration: 4-5 years
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Sowing rate: 6-8 kg/ha (direct), 3-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: can be started in deep plugs, but suffers transplant shock easily. Probably better to sow direct in field, in early spring or fall. Scarification helps speed germination. Harvested in fall, lateral roots trimmed, dried partially and then sliced 0.5 cm thick, and then further dried.
Field spacing: 75-100cm between rows x 25cm within rows.
Yield: 7000kg/ha (year 4-5).
Pests: no data
Diseases: unidentified root rot when in wet conditions.
Buyers want: no data.
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Sowing rate: 75g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow in deep plugs 19-20 weeks before sale; transplant before plugs are root-bound. Highly susceptible to mites.
Seeds to finished plugs: 10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 9 weeks.
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: damping-off.
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Mint
(Mentha spp.) |
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Market
|
Products: (leaf, herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 240,000 hectares (world), 16,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 17,000-20,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: rich, moist, well-drained, pH 6.5-7
Crop duration: 2-3 years
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Sowing rate: 1 kg/ha (direct), 0.1-0.2kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: commercial plantings propagated vegetatively; seed not suitable because of poor oil quality. Root cuttings planted in early spring or fall. Fields must be rotated every 2-3 years to prevent disease buildup.
Field spacing: 40-90cm between rows x 15-45cm within rows.
Yield: peppermint herb oil 35-125kg/ha, fresh herb 10-25t/ha, dried herb 1-3t/ha (years 2-3).
Pests: nematode, aphid
Diseases: puccinia rust, verticillum wilt, leaf spot, sphaceloma spot anthracnose.
Buyers want: peppermint minimum 1-1.2% volatile oil, not more than 10% leaves spotted with puccinia rust, not more than 5% stems, 2% foreign matter or 11% water.
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Sowing rate: 0.5-1g/1000 plants.
Planting: most cultivars grown from cuttings. Seed material not recommended for pot plant sales.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite, aphid, mealybug
Diseases: rust.
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Nettle
(Urtica dioica ) |
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Market
|
Products: (herb, root, leaf, seed);
Market size: 1,600 hectares (world), 240 ha (North America)
Prospects: Prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 6,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun or part shade
Soil: rich, moist, pH 6-7
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 5kg/ha (direct), 0.6kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow in plugs 12 weeks before field planting, or direct in spring.
Field spacing: 30cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: 1000-2000kg/ha (years 3-5).
Pests: no data
Diseases: no data.
Buyers want: maximum 10% stems, 2% other foreign matter, total ash 20%, acid-insoluble ash 4%.
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Sowing rate: 2g/1000 plants (indirect).
Planting: sow in plugs 18 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: spider mite, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Alfalfa
(Medicago sativa ) |
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Market
|
Products: (seeds, leaf, herb); (herb, sprouts)
Market size: (excluding acreage planted for fodder): 12,000 hectares (world); 5,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices and acreage up
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Culture |
Seed density: 350 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained; pH 6.0-7.5
Crop duration: 1-4 years
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(herb) |
Sowing rate: 9-13kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring, broadcast or sow in rows, 15-30cm apart. Two or more cuts at bud stage possible; last cut 6 weeks before killing frost. Heavy potash and phosphorus feeder.
Yield: dry herb 8-10,000kg/ha (years 1-4).
Pests: weevil, leafminer, leafhopper, snout beetle
Diseases: verticillium wilt, leafspot, phytophthora root rot.
Buyers want: organic product.
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(sprouts) |
Planting: soak seeds overnight; drain, keep moist. Ready in 3-5 days.
Yield: 4kg(sprouts)/kg(seeds).
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Arnica
(A. montana, A. chamissonis) |
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Market
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Products: (flower, root); (flower);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 160 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume down
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Culture |
Seed density: 700-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, humus-rich, pH 7 (A. chamissonis), pH 4.5-6 (A. montana)
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 1-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing not recommended. Sow in seedflats or plugs. Sow A. montana 16-20 weeks before transplanting to field; sow A. chamissonis 12 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 15-60cm between rows x 15-20cm within rows.
Harvest: flower (years 2-5), root (year 3 or 4).
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: chlorosis (yellow leaves) in A. montana caused by alkaline soil.
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Sowing rate: 8-10g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in seedflats or plugs 20 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8 weeks.
Pests: few problems, whitefly occasionally
Diseases: few problems.
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Lemon Balm
(Melissa officinalis) |
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Market
|
Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 75 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 2000 seeds/gram
Exposure: sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained clay or sandy loam, pH 6 to 7.5
Crop duration: 2-4 years
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Sowing rate: 7-9kg/ha (direct), 250-400g/ha (indirect, in plugs).
Planting: sowing in plugs in greenhouse in early spring till mid-summer is most common method; sow 6-8 weeks before transplanting to field. Direct sowing is not as common because weed control is more difficult; sow in early spring or late fall (to come up next spring).
Field spacing: 50-75cm between rows x 18-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry herb 5000kg/ha, fresh herb 10-25t/ha (years 1-3).
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: erisyphe powdery mildew, septoria blight, puccinia rust.
Buyers want: dry carefully to conserve oil in dried herb.
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Sowing rate: 3-5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in flats or plugs 11-14 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spidermite, thrip
Diseases: mildew.
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Basil
(Ocimum basilicum, and others ) |
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Market
|
Products: (leaf, herb); (herb); (oil);
Market size: 10,000 hectares (world), 1,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 500-1000 (O. gratissimum 2600, O. kilamandscharicum 2800, O. sanctum 1500-2500) seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: rich, well-drained
Crop duration: 1 year (O. basilicum), 1-3 years (others)
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Sowing rate: 20kg/ha (direct); 3-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in spring when nighttime temperatures exceed 10°C; or sow in flats or plugs 8 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 15-25cm within rows.
Yield: fresh herb 15,000kg/ha, dry herb 1,500-2,000kg/ha, oil 30kg/ha (year 1)
Pests: aphids, thrips
Diseases: O. basilicum varieties are highly susceptible to fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum) disease. Disease persists in soil for several years. Commercial field plantings should be sown with fusarium-tolerant Nufar F1. Hydroponic operations may choose fusarium-free varieties if equipment and facilities are free of fusarium (spreads by contaminated seeds and equipment). Other basil species (e.g. O. americanum and O. gratissimum) are fusarium-tolerant.
Buyers want: not less than 0.4% essential oil in dried product.
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Sowing rate: 3-4g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in final pots, or in plugs and later transplant to final pots. Nighttime temperature must not go below 10°C.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, thrips, aphids
Diseases: fusarium (see above).
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Bay Laurel
(Laurus nobilis ) |
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Market
|
Products: (leaf); (leaf);
Market size: 2,000 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 1 seeds/gram
Exposure: sheltered position in full or half sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, moist
Crop duration: 20-50 years
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Sowing rate: 30-60kg/ha
Planting: sow stratified seeds in beds or flats.
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: leaves dried flat for visual appearance.
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Sowing rate: 5kg/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or flats in March or April.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks (after stratification).
Plugs to saleable plants: 10 weeks to a year.
Pests: whitefly, scale, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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Borage
(Borago officinalis ) |
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Market
|
Products: (seed, herb, flower, root); (herb, flower, root), (seed);
Market size: 5,000 hectares (world); 2,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, acreage up
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Culture |
Seed density: 50 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: best in well-drained, fertile, moist soil, but tolerates most soils, pH 5-8
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 5-17 kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in late spring in rows 45-90cm apart, 30-45cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 300kg/ha; fresh flower 1,000-5,000kg/ha; seed 90-450kg/ha.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: 24% gamma lineolenic acid content in seed oil.
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Sowing rate: 50-80g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots or plugs.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
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Burdock
(Arctium lappa) |
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Market
|
Products: (root, leaf); (root);
Market size: 3,000 hectares (world), 170 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 60-110 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or part sun
Soil: deep, loose, humus-rich, pH 6-8
Crop duration: 1-2 years
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Sowing rate: 4 kg/ha (direct), 1.5kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring. Or, sow in beds or plugs and transplant to field in spring. For use as fresh vegetable, dig first year roots when young and tender at 3-5 months. For dry root production, dig in fall of second year.
Field spacing: 45-90cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry root 2,000kg/ha (years 2 or 3).
Pests: few problems, grasshopper
Diseases: few problems.
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Sowing rate: 20g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs 9-10 weeks before sale.
Seeds to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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| |
Calendula
(C. officinalis) |
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Market
|
Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 880 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 150 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained; can tolerate poor soil with low nitrogen.
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 3-9kg/ha (direct), 1kg/ha (indirect in plugs).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring or autumn; or sow in plugs 4-6 weeks before field planting. Seeds need light to germinate; cover seeds lightly or press in soil only.
Field spacing: 20-70cm between rows x 10-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 1-2,000kg/ha, fresh flower 6-9,000kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: blister-beetle, cabbage-looper, caterpillar, leafhopper
Diseases: leaf spot, aster-yellows.
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Sowing rate: 15g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or direct in pots 10-12 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 4-6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, aphid, thrip, mealybug
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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| |
Caraway
(Carum carvi) |
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Market
|
Products: (seed); (seed)
Market size: 19,000 hectares (world), 2,500 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 350-400 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, pH 6-7.8.
Crop duration: 1-2 years (depending on variety)
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Sowing rate: 8-11 kg/ha.
Planting: sow standard biennial type direct in field late June or early July; harvest following year in August. Sow annual type in May (suited for warmer regions with 5-6 frost-free months). Sometimes sown with annual cover crops such as coriander, dill, mustard the first year.
Field spacing: 10-50cm between rows x 4-15cm within rows.
Yield: seed 600-3,000kg/ha, oil 4.5-7kg/ha (year 1 or 2, depending on variety).
Pests: leafhopper
Diseases: aster yellows.
Buyers want: seed minimum 3% oil, maximum 12% moisture.
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Catnip
(Nepeta cataria ) |
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Market
|
Products: (herb, leaf);
Market size: 2,400 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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|
Culture |
Seed density: 1500-1600 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or partial sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, sandy, pH 6.5
Crop duration: 2-5 years
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Sowing rate: 12 kg/ha (direct), 1kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring or late fall. Or, sow in plugs 8-10 weeks before field planting. Seed needs light to germinate; sow shallow 2-4mm deep.
Field spacing: 45-90cm between rows x 30-40cm within rows.
Harvest: leaf, herb (years 2-5).
Yield: dry herb 3-6t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
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Sowing rate: 3g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or seedflats 12-15 weeks before sale. Sow 2-4mm deep.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8-10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3-5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
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Chamomile
(Matricaria recutita, Chamaemelum nobile ) |
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Market
|
Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 40,000 hectares (world), 4,800 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 10,000-18,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained, moist to dry
Crop duration: 1 year (M. recutita), 2-3 years (C. nobile)
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Sowing rate: 3-4 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect)
Planting: german (M. recutita) is sown direct in field in spring or fall. Fall sowings germinate following spring. Roman (C. nobile) is sown direct or indirect in plugs which are later planted in field. Surface sow only (needs light to germinate). Hand harvesting flowers problematic in areas where labour cost is high; mechanical harvesting still unproven.
Field spacing: 10-50cm between rows x 10-25cm within rows, or broadcast sown.
Yield: dry flower 350-500kg/ha (M. recutita; year 1), 600-1000 kg/ha (C. nobile; years 1-3).
Pests: cnephasia moth
Diseases: aster yellows.
Buyers want: 0.4% or more volatile oil.
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Sowing rate: 1g/1000plants.
Planting: german (M. recutita) not normally sold in pots; roman (C. nobile) and its varieties are sold in pots or plugs. Seeds need light to germinate; surface sow only.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4-6 weeks.
Pests: aphid, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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Chives
(Allium schoenoprasum, A. tuberosum ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf, flower); (leaf, flower);
Market size: 24,000 hectares (world), 3,200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 750 (A. schoenoprasum), 200-300 (A. tuberosum) seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, humus-rich
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 2-3 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring, or sow indirect in plugs 12-16 weeks before field planting. Field must be free of quackgrass otherwise harvests will be contaminated.
Field spacing: 30cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: fresh leaf 10-20t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: aphid
Diseases: puccinia rust, downy mildew.
Buyers want: good green colour (dry leaf).
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Sowing rate: 5-20g/1000plants (A. schoenoprasum), 50g/1000plants (A. tuberosum)
Planting: sow 10-15 seeds per plug or pot, or sow same amount direct in pots.
Seeds to saleable plants: 24-30 weeks.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12-16 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 11 weeks.
Pests: aphid, thrip
Diseases: few problems.
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Comfrey
(Symphytum officinale, S. x uplandicum) |
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Market
|
Products: (leaf, root); (root, herb);
Market size: 1,700 hectares (world), 240 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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|
Culture |
Seed density: 90-100 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or part sun
Soil: moist, wet or dry
Crop duration: 2-5 years
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Sowing rate: 600-900g/ha (indirect).
Planting: although seed can be sown direct, the high cost of seed dictates indirect sowing in plugs or seedbed and transplanting to field. Root cuttings (12,000/ha) of named cultivars (e.g. Bocking No. 14) recommended over seed.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 90cm within rows.
Yield: dry leaf 12t/ha (years 2-5), dry root 1,800kg/ha (year 3, 4 or 5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: comfrey rust.
Buyers want: low pyrrolizidine alkaloid content, particularly echimidine; leaf should be cut early to avoid alkaloid buildup.
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Sowing rate: 50-70g/1000plants.
Planting: sow S. officinale in plugs or seedflats 12-14 weeks before sale. S. x uplandicum and ornamental varieties are propagated by division or root cutting.
Seeds to saleable plants: 12 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, aphid
Diseases: comfrey rust.
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Coriander, Cilantro
(Coriandrum sativum) |
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Market
|
Products: (seed); (herb); (seed, herb);
Market size: 600,000 hectares (world), 5,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 110-150 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun (seed), full or half sun (fresh herb)
Soil: deep, fertile, light or heavy, well-drained, pH 6.5-7.5
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 25 kg/ha (seed), 80 kg/ha (fresh herb).
Planting: for seed and seed oil production, sow direct in spring. For fresh herb (cilantro) and herb oil production sow early spring and fall; will bolt in hot weather.
Field spacing: 50-60cm between rows x 11-13cm between plants (seed), 20-25cm between rows x 8-10cm (fresh herb).
Yield: seed 900-1,500kg/ha, fresh herb 10-12t/ha, oil 1-9kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: thrip
Diseases: asters yellow, erysiphe powdery mildew, puccinia rust, pseudamonas, and sclerotina.
Buyers want: less than 12% moisture.
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Sowing rate: 200g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots; do not transplant – root disturbance causes plants to bolt early.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: aphid, thrip, mite, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Dandelion
(Taraxacum officinale) |
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Market
|
Products: (root, herb); (leaf)
Market size: 7,000 hectares (world); 500 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 1200-1900 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: most soils
Crop duration: 2 years (root), 1-4 years (fresh leaf)
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Sowing rate: 1-3kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring or late summer. Fresh leaf gathered as vegetable spring, summer and fall. Herb for drying harvested spring or summer. Roots dug late fall.
Field spacing: 45cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: dry root 1100-1700kg/ha (year 2).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: water-soluble extractive not less than 30%.
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Dill
(Anethum graveolens, A. sowa ) |
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Market
|
Products: (seed, herb); (leaf); (leaf, seed);
Market size: 37,000 hectares (world), 4,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices same, volume up
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|
Culture |
Seed density: 400-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, moderately rich, loose soil, pH 5.5-6.5
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 9-12 kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in spring.
Field spacing: 25-50cm between rows; thin to 10cm within rows for fresh herb production or 2-3cm within rows for seed production.
Yield: seed 600-900kg/ha, fresh herb 2500-5000kg/ha, dried herb 1000kg/ha, oil 50-110kg/ha.
Pests: aphid, tarnished plant bug
Diseases: powdery mildew, leafspot, aster yellows.
Buyers want: good green colour (dried leaf).
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Sowing rate: 15-40g/1000pots.
Planting: do not transplant; sow direct in pots, 8-20 seeds per pot.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: aphid
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Echinacea
(Echinacea purpurea, E. angustifolia, E. pallida ) |
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Market
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Products: (root, herb, flower, seed); (herb);
Market size: 16,000 hectares (world), 4,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices down, acreage up; market for E. purpurea herb is weak.
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Culture |
Seed density: 160-500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained, pH 6-7.5
Crop duration: 3-4 years
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Sowing rate: 14-18 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: E. purpurea seeds do not require pretreatment. Can be started in plugs and transplanted to the field, which is the preferred method, or can be sown direct in the field. Sow E. purpurea 100-120 days before field planting; sow E. angustifolia and E. pallida 150 days before planting. E. angustifolia and E. pallida germination benefits from pretreatment; stratify at 5°C for 4-12 weeks with light. Pretreatment with Ethrel (1 millimolar for 2 weeks), or with bleach (1% for 10 min.) improves E. angustifolia germination.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 20-45cm within rows.
Yield: E. purpurea herb 6,500-11,000kg/ha (years 2-4); E. purpurea root 1000kg/ha (year 4); E. angustifolia root 1100kg/ha (year 4); no data for E. pallida root.
Pests: leafhopper
Diseases: aster yellows (spread by leafhoppers), sclerotinia stem and root rot, botrytis.
Buyers want: certificate of botanical identity required for E. angustifolia; echinacoside 1.4% (roots).
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Sowing rate: 10g/1000plants.
Planting: sow 14 weeks (E. purpurea) to 22 weeks (E. angustifolia, E. pallida) before sale. Stratify or pretreat E. angustifolia and E. pallida seed before sowing (see above).
Seeds to finished plugs: 8-12 weeks (after pretreatment).
Plugs to saleable plants: 6-10 weeks.
Pests: few problems, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Elecampane
(Inula helenium ) |
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Market
|
Products: (root); (root);
Market size: 800 hectares (world), 25 ha (North America).
Prospects: prices same, volume same
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|
Culture |
Seed density: 600-800 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: moist, deep, well-drained
Crop duration: 2 years.
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|
|
Sowing rate: 400-600g/ha (direct); 5g/1000plants (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing not recommended. Start in plugs 8 weeks before spring or late summer field planting.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 45cm within rows.
Yield: 2500kg/ha (year 2).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: erysiphe powdery mildew (late summer), ramularia leafspot, puccinia rust.
Buyers want: not less than 1.8% volatile oil, not more than 6-8% ash, not less than 27% water-soluble extractive, not more than 2% foreign matter.
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Sowing rate: 5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs, seedflats or seed beds. Germination in 4-7 days.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 2-6 weeks.
Pests: spider mite, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Fennel
(Foeniculum vulgare) |
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Market
|
Products: (seed); (leaf, bulb); (herb);
Market size: 70,000 hectares (world), 7,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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|
Culture |
Seed density: 200-300 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, deep, moderately fertile, pH 7-8.
Crop duration: 2-3 years (florence fennel, 1 year)
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Sowing rate: 4-6kg/ha (direct), 30g/1000plants (indirect).
Planting: sow sweet fennel direct; bronze direct or indirect; florence indirect.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: seed 1000-1600kg/ha (years 2-3), fresh herb 8-10t/ha (year 1-3), dried herb 1.5-2.5t/ha (year 1-3), seed oil 40-75kg/ha.
Pests: aphid, lygus tarnished plant bug
Diseases: sclerotinia stemrot, rhizoctonia damping-off, erwinia soft rot.
Buyers want: not less than 2-4% volatile oil.
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Sowing rate: 30g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots or in plugs. Does not transplant well; best to sow direct.
Seeds to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3 weeks.
Pests: aphid
Diseases: damping-off.
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Fenugreek
(Trigonella foenum-graecum) |
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Market
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Products: (seeds, leaf, herb); (herb, sprouts); (seed)
Market size: 90,000 hectares (world), 7,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 100 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, warm soil
Crop duration: 1 year.
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Sowing rate: 25-35kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in spring. Broadcast or in close rows.
Field spacing: 20cm between rows x 10-20cm within rows.
Yield: seed 700-900kg/ha, dried forage 2-10t/ha.
Pests: no data
Diseases: no data.
Buyers want: swelling index not less than 6, foreign matter not more than 2-5%, ash not more than 5-6% (seed).
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Feverfew
(Tanacetum parthenium) |
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Market
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Products: (herb);
Market size: 1,300 hectares (world), 160 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume down
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Culture |
Seed density: 7,500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained, dry soil
Crop duration: 1-2 years
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Sowing rate: 1-1.5 kg/ha (direct); 0.5g/1000plants.
Planting: plugs preferred over direct sowing because seeds very small. Sow plugs 8 weeks before spring planting date. Don't allow to go to seed to avoid winterkill. Frequent fertilization with low nitrogen fertilizer is beneficial. Long days trigger flowering. Short lived perennial; some growers treat as annual.
Field spacing: 20-90cm between rows x 10-20cm within rows.
Yield: 300-5000kg/ha (years 1-2).
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: minimum 0.4-0.8% parthenolide.
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Sowing rate: 0.5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow 14-16 weeks before sales in flats or plug trays.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6-8 weeks.
Pests: aphid, whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
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Scented Geranium
(Pelargonium spp. ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (leaf);
Market size: 4,000 hectares (world), 400 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 360-450 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, neutral to alkaline
Crop duration: 1 year temperate areas, 3-5 year in tropical areas.d o Planting: all commercially important varieties are propagated by cuttings. Plugs planted in spring after last frost date. FieldSpacing: 60-100cm between rows x 20-50cm within rows. Yield: fresh leaf 13-30t/ha, oil 13-17kg/ha (years 1-5). PestsDiseases: aphid, caterpillar / alternaria leaf spot.
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Seeds/ |
Planting: all commercially important varieties are propagated by cuttings. Plugs planted in spring after last frost date.
Field spacing: 60-100cm between rows x 20-50cm within rows.
Yield: fresh leaf 13-30t/ha, oil 13-17kg/ha (years 1-5).
Pests: aphid, caterpillar
Diseases: alternaria leaf spot.
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Sowing rate: 30-80g/1000 plants.
Planting: commercial propagation is by cutting only.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6-8 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, geranium and peach aphid, mite, mealybug, scale
Diseases: various leaf spots including xanthomonas, alternaria, botrytis.
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Gingko
(Ginkgo biloba ) |
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Market
|
Products: (leaf); (seed);
Market size: 5,000 hectares (world), 600 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 1 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: rich, well-drained, moist soil
Crop duration: 20-50+ years
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Sowing rate: 2-4kg/hectare.
Planting: seeds require stratification, 1-2 months warm, then 1-2 months cold, then sow in spring. Common nursery practice is to sow without stratification in outdoor seed beds in fall. Seedlings shaded for 2-3 years and fertilized with manure. Seedlings transplanted to permanent location when 7-8 years old. Trees kept short (2m) and spaced close (2-3m) in commercial plantations for medicinal leaf production; otherwise allowed to grow higher and spaced further for seed production. Slow growing. Leaves harvested in early fall as they begin to turn yellow; dried in sun. Fruits harvested late fall, seeds cleaned and roasted.
Field spacing: 3-5m apart (2-3m within rows for leaf production).
Yield: no data (leaf years 8-50, seed years 20-50).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: tolerates pollution.
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Sowing rate: 2-4kg/1000 plants.
Planting: stratify seed warm (1-2 months) followed by cold (1-2 months). Sow in deep plugs. Keep lightly shaded.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks to 1 year.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8 weeks (10cm pots), 2-5 years (larger plants).
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Ginseng
(Panax quinquefolius, P. ginseng; Eleutherococcus senticosus) |
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Market
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Products: (root)
Market size: Panax 70,000 hectares (world), 7,400 ha (North America)
Prospects: Panax prices down, volume up. Prospects for woodsgrown Panax much better than shadecloth grown.
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Culture |
Seed density: Panax 15; Eleutherococcus 100 seeds/gram
Exposure: Panax 70% shade; Eleutherococcus 30-50% shade
Soil: well-drained, sandy or clay loam, in raised beds, pH 5.5-6.0
Crop duration: Panax 3-4 years (shadecloth), 4-8 years (woodsgrown); Eleutherococcus 6-12 years
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Sowing rate: 40-100 kg/ha (shadecloth), 10-20 kg/ha (woodsgrown).
Planting: Panax seeds stratified one year. Sow stratified seeds in seedbeds and transplant seedlings to raised beds in years 1-2, or sow direct in raised beds. Mulch with straw. Remove shadecloth over winter. Eleutherococcus seeds need at least cycles of warm-cold stratification; best results obtained when sown in flats in fall and left out over winter under mulch.
Field spacing: Panax 15-20cm between rows x 15-20cm within rows, further apart in woodsgrown plantings; Eleutherococcus 60-100cm apart.
Yield: Panax (shadecloth) 3400kg/ha (years 3-4).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: Panax alternaria leaf blight, rhizoctonia wilt, phytophthora, powdery mildew; Eleutherococcus few problems.
Buyers want: ginsenosides not less than 1.5-2%, ash not more than 4-8%.
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Sowing rate: Panax 150g/1000 plants; Eleutherococcus 250g/1000plants.
Planting: sow stratified Panax seeds in deep plugs, 2-4 seeds per plug, or sow in seed flats. Provide shade, keep cool and well ventilated.
Seeds to finished plugs: Panax 6 months (after stratification).
Plugs to saleable plants: Panax 1 year.
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: Panax alternaria, rhizoctonia.
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Goldenseal
(Hydrastis canadensis) |
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Market
|
Products: (root);
Market size: 17,000 hectares (world), 7,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices down, volume up. Majority of market supplied by wildcrafted material, but wild stocks are becoming depleted and now listed on CITES.
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Culture |
Seed density: 50-55 seeds/gram
Exposure: 50-75% Shade
Soil: well-drained, deep, fertile soil, pH 5.5-6.5, in raised beds or on gentle slope.
Crop duration: 3-6 years
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Sowing rate: 10kg/ha (direct), 100g/1000 plants (indirect); rootlets 100,000/ha.
Planting: growers prefer rootlets over seeds because they are more reliable and quicker to harvestable size (3 years); however, seed quality has improved recently and cost of seeds is much less than rootlets. Seeds take 5-6 years to get harvestable roots. Seeds must not dry out; must be sown immediately after harvest in late summer to come up following spring. Avoid straw mulch and fertilize lightly.
Field spacing: 15-40cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: 900-2300kg/ha (year 3-6).
Pests: slugs
Diseases: alternaria, phytophthora, rhizoctonia, botrytis leafspot, fusarium.
Buyers want: min. alkaloids 3.5%.
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Sowing rate: seed 100g/1000plants, rootlets 300-1000/1000 plants.
Planting: for potted plant production, best to start with rootlets. Pot up rootlets 4 weeks before sale. Provide cool, shaded, and well-ventilated conditions; will not tolerate full sun and high humidity.
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: alternaria and other diseases common in potted plants in greenhouses.
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Lavender
(Lavandula angustifolia, L. x intermedia) |
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Market
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Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 9,000 hectares (world), 1,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 850-1300 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained, deep, not too rich, pH 6.5-7.5
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 3-6kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: lavandins (L. x intermedia; e.g. 'Provence' and 'Grosso'), best for commercial flower and oil production, are propagated vegetatively only. Only english types are available in seed form, but seed grown material may not be uniform enough for field production. Direct sowing not recommended; germination is too slow (15-30 days). Sow in seedflats 12-16 weeks before outdoor planting; transplant to plugs at 4-6 weeks, then transplant to field.
Field spacing: 60-120cm between rows x 25-120cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 500-1500kg/ha (years 2-5), oil 8-32kg/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: caterpillar, nematode
Diseases: phoma scab, septoria leaf spot, armillaria root rot.
Buyers want: 1.3% volatile oil or higher, good colour.
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Sowing rate: 5-10g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow 20-26 weeks before sale. Germination of english types (L. angustifolia) is frequently below 50%; scarification or freezing of seedflat can sometimes improve germination.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12-16 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8-10 weeks.
Pests: mealybug, whitefly, spider mite, scale
Diseases: few problems.
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Lemongrass
(Cymbopogon citratus, C. flexuosus) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (stem); (herb);
Market size: 50,000 hectares (world), 2,600 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: C. flexuosus 2000-2400 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, sandy loam, pH 5.5-6.5
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: C. flexuosus 5-10kg/ha (direct).
Planting: C. citratus grown from cuttings only. Sow C. flexuosus in spring. Heavy feeder. Oil quality of C. citratus highest at 18-24 months.
Field spacing: C. citratus 100cm between rows x 45cm within rows; broadcast C. flexuosus, or sow in rows 60-100cm apart.
Yield: C. citratus dry herb 4-6t/ha, oil 30-40kg/ha (years 1-5); C. flexuosus dry herb 10-15t/ha, 80kg/ha (years 1-5).
Pests: no data
Diseases: C. citratus himantia web blight, myriogenospora tangletop, helminthosperium eyespot, papularia.
Buyers want: high citral content.
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Sowing rate: 5g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow C. flexuosus in plugs 13-14 weeks before sale. C. citratus grown from cuttings only.
Seeds to finished plugs: 10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3-8 weeks.
Pests: spider mite, whitefly, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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Licorice
(Glycyrrhiza spp. ) |
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Market
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Products: (root);
Market size: 45,000 hectares (world), 480 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices down, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 400-600 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: deep, rich, moist, sandy, slightly alkaline, pH 7.3-7.8
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 3-4 kg/ha (direct), 5-10g/1000 plants (indirect).
Planting: soak seeds 2-3 hours in 30°C water or scarify before planting to weaken hard seed coat. Sow direct in spring or in deep plugs 12-16 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 70-90cm between rows x 45-90cm within rows.
Yield: G. glabra dry root 10-20t/ha (year 3-5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: uromyces rust, cercospora blight.
Buyers want: minimum 4% glycyrrhizinic acid, minimum 20% water soluble extractive.
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Sowing rate: 5-10g/1000plants.
Planting: soak seed in warm water (30°C) for 2-3 hours or scarify before sowing. Sow in flats or deep plugs 22-26 weeks before sale. Highly susceptible to damping-off; preventative application of damping-off control recommended.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12-16 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: damping-off.
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Lobelia
(Lobelia inflata ) |
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Market
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Products: (seed, herb);
Market size: 9,000 hectares (world), 1,700 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 30,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, rich soil
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 0.2-1kg/ha (direct), 0.1kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow in plugs or seedflats 12 weeks before field planting. Harvest herb when upper flowers are in bloom and lowest flowers have developed seed capsules when lobeline and lobelidine alkaloid content highest.
Field spacing: 30cm between rows x 15cm within rows.
Yield: dry herb 1100kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: wireworms
Diseases: cercospora, phyllosticta and septoria leaf spots.
Buyers want: no data.
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Sowing rate: 0.5g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow in plugs 14 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4-6 weeks.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
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Marjoram
(Origanum majorana) |
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Market
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Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 12,000 hectares (world), 800 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 3,500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, pH 6.5-7.5
Crop duration: 1 year (2-3 years in zone 9+)
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Sowing rate: 5-6kg/ha (direct), 0.2-0.3kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: requires warmth to do well; germinates best above 15°C daytime and 10°C nighttime. Sow direct in warmer zones; or sow indirect in plugs 12 weeks before field planting in cooler zones.
Field spacing: 30-40cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: 2.5-3t/ha (years 1-3).
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: botrytis gray mold, alternaria, puccinia rust, septoria.
Buyers want: no data.
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Sowing rate: 1g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or direct in pots 6-8 weeks before sale. Minimum 15°C days, 10°C nights.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 2-4 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite, thrip
Diseases: few problems.
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Chinese Milkvetch, Astragalus
(Astragalus membranaceus) |
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Market
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Products: (root);
Market size: 1,700 hectares (world), 560 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 130-160 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, deep, moist, alkaline
Crop duration: 4-5 years
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Sowing rate: 6-8 kg/ha (direct), 3-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: can be started in deep plugs, but suffers transplant shock easily. Probably better to sow direct in field, in early spring or fall. Scarification helps speed germination. Harvested in fall, lateral roots trimmed, dried partially and then sliced 0.5 cm thick, and then further dried.
Field spacing: 75-100cm between rows x 25cm within rows.
Yield: 7000kg/ha (year 4-5).
Pests: no data
Diseases: unidentified root rot when in wet conditions.
Buyers want: no data.
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Sowing rate: 75g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow in deep plugs 19-20 weeks before sale; transplant before plugs are root-bound. Highly susceptible to mites.
Seeds to finished plugs: 10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 9 weeks.
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: damping-off.
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Mint
(Mentha spp.) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf, herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 240,000 hectares (world), 16,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 17,000-20,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: rich, moist, well-drained, pH 6.5-7
Crop duration: 2-3 years
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Sowing rate: 1 kg/ha (direct), 0.1-0.2kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: commercial plantings propagated vegetatively; seed not suitable because of poor oil quality. Root cuttings planted in early spring or fall. Fields must be rotated every 2-3 years to prevent disease buildup.
Field spacing: 40-90cm between rows x 15-45cm within rows.
Yield: peppermint herb oil 35-125kg/ha, fresh herb 10-25t/ha, dried herb 1-3t/ha (years 2-3).
Pests: nematode, aphid
Diseases: puccinia rust, verticillum wilt, leaf spot, sphaceloma spot anthracnose.
Buyers want: peppermint minimum 1-1.2% volatile oil, not more than 10% leaves spotted with puccinia rust, not more than 5% stems, 2% foreign matter or 11% water.
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Sowing rate: 0.5-1g/1000 plants.
Planting: most cultivars grown from cuttings. Seed material not recommended for pot plant sales.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite, aphid, mealybug
Diseases: rust.
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Nettle
(Urtica dioica ) |
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Market
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Products: (herb, root, leaf, seed);
Market size: 1,600 hectares (world), 240 ha (North America)
Prospects: Prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 6,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun or part shade
Soil: rich, moist, pH 6-7
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 5kg/ha (direct), 0.6kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow in plugs 12 weeks before field planting, or direct in spring.
Field spacing: 30cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: 1000-2000kg/ha (years 3-5).
Pests: no data
Diseases: no data.
Buyers want: maximum 10% stems, 2% other foreign matter, total ash 20%, acid-insoluble ash 4%.
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Sowing rate: 2g/1000 plants (indirect).
Planting: sow in plugs 18 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: spider mite, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Oregano
(Origanum spp. ) |
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Market
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Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 8,000 hectares (world), 2,400 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up Varieties: most oregano is wildcrafted in Europe. In North America, much of the oregano is Lippia graveolens, the mexican variety.
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Culture |
Seed density: 3800-4500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, sandy, dry, pH 6-8
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 2.5-3kg/ha (direct), 0.2-0.5kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: greek variety is best for commercial fresh and dry herb and oil production. Sow direct in spring when soil temperature is at least 15°C, or sow in plugs 6 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 30-40cm between rows x 7-15cm within rows.
Yield: dry herb 1000-3000kg/ha, fresh herb 10-20t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: unspecified fungal diseases can occur in wet weather.
Buyers want: strong scent, good green colour.
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Sowing rate: 0.5-1g/1000 plants.
Planting: most varieties cannot be grown from seeds; only greek variety is raised from seed commercially. Sow in plugs 12 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Alfalfa
(Medicago sativa ) |
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Market
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Products: (seeds, leaf, herb); (herb, sprouts)
Market size: (excluding acreage planted for fodder): 12,000 hectares (world); 5,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices and acreage up
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Culture |
Seed density: 350 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained; pH 6.0-7.5
Crop duration: 1-4 years
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(herb) |
Sowing rate: 9-13kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring, broadcast or sow in rows, 15-30cm apart. Two or more cuts at bud stage possible; last cut 6 weeks before killing frost. Heavy potash and phosphorus feeder.
Yield: dry herb 8-10,000kg/ha (years 1-4).
Pests: weevil, leafminer, leafhopper, snout beetle
Diseases: verticillium wilt, leafspot, phytophthora root rot.
Buyers want: organic product.
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(sprouts) |
Planting: soak seeds overnight; drain, keep moist. Ready in 3-5 days.
Yield: 4kg(sprouts)/kg(seeds).
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Arnica
(A. montana, A. chamissonis) |
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Market
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Products: (flower, root); (flower);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 160 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume down
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Culture |
Seed density: 700-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, humus-rich, pH 7 (A. chamissonis), pH 4.5-6 (A. montana)
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 1-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing not recommended. Sow in seedflats or plugs. Sow A. montana 16-20 weeks before transplanting to field; sow A. chamissonis 12 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 15-60cm between rows x 15-20cm within rows.
Harvest: flower (years 2-5), root (year 3 or 4).
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: chlorosis (yellow leaves) in A. montana caused by alkaline soil.
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Sowing rate: 8-10g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in seedflats or plugs 20 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8 weeks.
Pests: few problems, whitefly occasionally
Diseases: few problems.
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Lemon Balm
(Melissa officinalis) |
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Market
|
Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 75 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 2000 seeds/gram
Exposure: sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained clay or sandy loam, pH 6 to 7.5
Crop duration: 2-4 years
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Sowing rate: 7-9kg/ha (direct), 250-400g/ha (indirect, in plugs).
Planting: sowing in plugs in greenhouse in early spring till mid-summer is most common method; sow 6-8 weeks before transplanting to field. Direct sowing is not as common because weed control is more difficult; sow in early spring or late fall (to come up next spring).
Field spacing: 50-75cm between rows x 18-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry herb 5000kg/ha, fresh herb 10-25t/ha (years 1-3).
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: erisyphe powdery mildew, septoria blight, puccinia rust.
Buyers want: dry carefully to conserve oil in dried herb.
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Sowing rate: 3-5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in flats or plugs 11-14 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spidermite, thrip
Diseases: mildew.
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Basil
(Ocimum basilicum, and others ) |
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Market
|
Products: (leaf, herb); (herb); (oil);
Market size: 10,000 hectares (world), 1,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 500-1000 (O. gratissimum 2600, O. kilamandscharicum 2800, O. sanctum 1500-2500) seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: rich, well-drained
Crop duration: 1 year (O. basilicum), 1-3 years (others)
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Sowing rate: 20kg/ha (direct); 3-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in spring when nighttime temperatures exceed 10°C; or sow in flats or plugs 8 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 15-25cm within rows.
Yield: fresh herb 15,000kg/ha, dry herb 1,500-2,000kg/ha, oil 30kg/ha (year 1)
Pests: aphids, thrips
Diseases: O. basilicum varieties are highly susceptible to fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum) disease. Disease persists in soil for several years. Commercial field plantings should be sown with fusarium-tolerant Nufar F1. Hydroponic operations may choose fusarium-free varieties if equipment and facilities are free of fusarium (spreads by contaminated seeds and equipment). Other basil species (e.g. O. americanum and O. gratissimum) are fusarium-tolerant.
Buyers want: not less than 0.4% essential oil in dried product.
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Sowing rate: 3-4g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in final pots, or in plugs and later transplant to final pots. Nighttime temperature must not go below 10°C.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, thrips, aphids
Diseases: fusarium (see above).
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Bay Laurel
(Laurus nobilis ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (leaf);
Market size: 2,000 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 1 seeds/gram
Exposure: sheltered position in full or half sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, moist
Crop duration: 20-50 years
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Sowing rate: 30-60kg/ha
Planting: sow stratified seeds in beds or flats.
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: leaves dried flat for visual appearance.
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Sowing rate: 5kg/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or flats in March or April.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks (after stratification).
Plugs to saleable plants: 10 weeks to a year.
Pests: whitefly, scale, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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Borage
(Borago officinalis ) |
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Market
|
Products: (seed, herb, flower, root); (herb, flower, root), (seed);
Market size: 5,000 hectares (world); 2,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, acreage up
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Culture |
Seed density: 50 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: best in well-drained, fertile, moist soil, but tolerates most soils, pH 5-8
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 5-17 kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in late spring in rows 45-90cm apart, 30-45cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 300kg/ha; fresh flower 1,000-5,000kg/ha; seed 90-450kg/ha.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: 24% gamma lineolenic acid content in seed oil.
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Sowing rate: 50-80g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots or plugs.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
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Burdock
(Arctium lappa) |
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Market
|
Products: (root, leaf); (root);
Market size: 3,000 hectares (world), 170 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 60-110 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or part sun
Soil: deep, loose, humus-rich, pH 6-8
Crop duration: 1-2 years
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Sowing rate: 4 kg/ha (direct), 1.5kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring. Or, sow in beds or plugs and transplant to field in spring. For use as fresh vegetable, dig first year roots when young and tender at 3-5 months. For dry root production, dig in fall of second year.
Field spacing: 45-90cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry root 2,000kg/ha (years 2 or 3).
Pests: few problems, grasshopper
Diseases: few problems.
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Sowing rate: 20g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs 9-10 weeks before sale.
Seeds to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Calendula
(C. officinalis) |
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Market
|
Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 880 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 150 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained; can tolerate poor soil with low nitrogen.
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 3-9kg/ha (direct), 1kg/ha (indirect in plugs).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring or autumn; or sow in plugs 4-6 weeks before field planting. Seeds need light to germinate; cover seeds lightly or press in soil only.
Field spacing: 20-70cm between rows x 10-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 1-2,000kg/ha, fresh flower 6-9,000kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: blister-beetle, cabbage-looper, caterpillar, leafhopper
Diseases: leaf spot, aster-yellows.
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Sowing rate: 15g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or direct in pots 10-12 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 4-6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, aphid, thrip, mealybug
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Caraway
(Carum carvi) |
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Market
|
Products: (seed); (seed)
Market size: 19,000 hectares (world), 2,500 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 350-400 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, pH 6-7.8.
Crop duration: 1-2 years (depending on variety)
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Sowing rate: 8-11 kg/ha.
Planting: sow standard biennial type direct in field late June or early July; harvest following year in August. Sow annual type in May (suited for warmer regions with 5-6 frost-free months). Sometimes sown with annual cover crops such as coriander, dill, mustard the first year.
Field spacing: 10-50cm between rows x 4-15cm within rows.
Yield: seed 600-3,000kg/ha, oil 4.5-7kg/ha (year 1 or 2, depending on variety).
Pests: leafhopper
Diseases: aster yellows.
Buyers want: seed minimum 3% oil, maximum 12% moisture.
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Catnip
(Nepeta cataria ) |
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Market
|
Products: (herb, leaf);
Market size: 2,400 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 1500-1600 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or partial sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, sandy, pH 6.5
Crop duration: 2-5 years
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Sowing rate: 12 kg/ha (direct), 1kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring or late fall. Or, sow in plugs 8-10 weeks before field planting. Seed needs light to germinate; sow shallow 2-4mm deep.
Field spacing: 45-90cm between rows x 30-40cm within rows.
Harvest: leaf, herb (years 2-5).
Yield: dry herb 3-6t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
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Sowing rate: 3g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or seedflats 12-15 weeks before sale. Sow 2-4mm deep.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8-10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3-5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
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Chamomile
(Matricaria recutita, Chamaemelum nobile ) |
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Market
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Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 40,000 hectares (world), 4,800 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 10,000-18,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained, moist to dry
Crop duration: 1 year (M. recutita), 2-3 years (C. nobile)
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Sowing rate: 3-4 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect)
Planting: german (M. recutita) is sown direct in field in spring or fall. Fall sowings germinate following spring. Roman (C. nobile) is sown direct or indirect in plugs which are later planted in field. Surface sow only (needs light to germinate). Hand harvesting flowers problematic in areas where labour cost is high; mechanical harvesting still unproven.
Field spacing: 10-50cm between rows x 10-25cm within rows, or broadcast sown.
Yield: dry flower 350-500kg/ha (M. recutita; year 1), 600-1000 kg/ha (C. nobile; years 1-3).
Pests: cnephasia moth
Diseases: aster yellows.
Buyers want: 0.4% or more volatile oil.
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Sowing rate: 1g/1000plants.
Planting: german (M. recutita) not normally sold in pots; roman (C. nobile) and its varieties are sold in pots or plugs. Seeds need light to germinate; surface sow only.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4-6 weeks.
Pests: aphid, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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Chives
(Allium schoenoprasum, A. tuberosum ) |
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Market
|
Products: (leaf, flower); (leaf, flower);
Market size: 24,000 hectares (world), 3,200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 750 (A. schoenoprasum), 200-300 (A. tuberosum) seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, humus-rich
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 2-3 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring, or sow indirect in plugs 12-16 weeks before field planting. Field must be free of quackgrass otherwise harvests will be contaminated.
Field spacing: 30cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: fresh leaf 10-20t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: aphid
Diseases: puccinia rust, downy mildew.
Buyers want: good green colour (dry leaf).
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Sowing rate: 5-20g/1000plants (A. schoenoprasum), 50g/1000plants (A. tuberosum)
Planting: sow 10-15 seeds per plug or pot, or sow same amount direct in pots.
Seeds to saleable plants: 24-30 weeks.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12-16 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 11 weeks.
Pests: aphid, thrip
Diseases: few problems.
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Comfrey
(Symphytum officinale, S. x uplandicum) |
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Market
|
Products: (leaf, root); (root, herb);
Market size: 1,700 hectares (world), 240 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 90-100 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or part sun
Soil: moist, wet or dry
Crop duration: 2-5 years
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Sowing rate: 600-900g/ha (indirect).
Planting: although seed can be sown direct, the high cost of seed dictates indirect sowing in plugs or seedbed and transplanting to field. Root cuttings (12,000/ha) of named cultivars (e.g. Bocking No. 14) recommended over seed.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 90cm within rows.
Yield: dry leaf 12t/ha (years 2-5), dry root 1,800kg/ha (year 3, 4 or 5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: comfrey rust.
Buyers want: low pyrrolizidine alkaloid content, particularly echimidine; leaf should be cut early to avoid alkaloid buildup.
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Sowing rate: 50-70g/1000plants.
Planting: sow S. officinale in plugs or seedflats 12-14 weeks before sale. S. x uplandicum and ornamental varieties are propagated by division or root cutting.
Seeds to saleable plants: 12 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, aphid
Diseases: comfrey rust.
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Coriander, Cilantro
(Coriandrum sativum) |
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Market
|
Products: (seed); (herb); (seed, herb);
Market size: 600,000 hectares (world), 5,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 110-150 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun (seed), full or half sun (fresh herb)
Soil: deep, fertile, light or heavy, well-drained, pH 6.5-7.5
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 25 kg/ha (seed), 80 kg/ha (fresh herb).
Planting: for seed and seed oil production, sow direct in spring. For fresh herb (cilantro) and herb oil production sow early spring and fall; will bolt in hot weather.
Field spacing: 50-60cm between rows x 11-13cm between plants (seed), 20-25cm between rows x 8-10cm (fresh herb).
Yield: seed 900-1,500kg/ha, fresh herb 10-12t/ha, oil 1-9kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: thrip
Diseases: asters yellow, erysiphe powdery mildew, puccinia rust, pseudamonas, and sclerotina.
Buyers want: less than 12% moisture.
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Sowing rate: 200g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots; do not transplant – root disturbance causes plants to bolt early.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: aphid, thrip, mite, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Dandelion
(Taraxacum officinale) |
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Market
|
Products: (root, herb); (leaf)
Market size: 7,000 hectares (world); 500 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 1200-1900 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: most soils
Crop duration: 2 years (root), 1-4 years (fresh leaf)
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Sowing rate: 1-3kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring or late summer. Fresh leaf gathered as vegetable spring, summer and fall. Herb for drying harvested spring or summer. Roots dug late fall.
Field spacing: 45cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: dry root 1100-1700kg/ha (year 2).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: water-soluble extractive not less than 30%.
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Dill
(Anethum graveolens, A. sowa ) |
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Market
|
Products: (seed, herb); (leaf); (leaf, seed);
Market size: 37,000 hectares (world), 4,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices same, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 400-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, moderately rich, loose soil, pH 5.5-6.5
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 9-12 kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in spring.
Field spacing: 25-50cm between rows; thin to 10cm within rows for fresh herb production or 2-3cm within rows for seed production.
Yield: seed 600-900kg/ha, fresh herb 2500-5000kg/ha, dried herb 1000kg/ha, oil 50-110kg/ha.
Pests: aphid, tarnished plant bug
Diseases: powdery mildew, leafspot, aster yellows.
Buyers want: good green colour (dried leaf).
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Sowing rate: 15-40g/1000pots.
Planting: do not transplant; sow direct in pots, 8-20 seeds per pot.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: aphid
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Echinacea
(Echinacea purpurea, E. angustifolia, E. pallida ) |
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Market
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Products: (root, herb, flower, seed); (herb);
Market size: 16,000 hectares (world), 4,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices down, acreage up; market for E. purpurea herb is weak.
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Culture |
Seed density: 160-500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained, pH 6-7.5
Crop duration: 3-4 years
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Sowing rate: 14-18 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: E. purpurea seeds do not require pretreatment. Can be started in plugs and transplanted to the field, which is the preferred method, or can be sown direct in the field. Sow E. purpurea 100-120 days before field planting; sow E. angustifolia and E. pallida 150 days before planting. E. angustifolia and E. pallida germination benefits from pretreatment; stratify at 5°C for 4-12 weeks with light. Pretreatment with Ethrel (1 millimolar for 2 weeks), or with bleach (1% for 10 min.) improves E. angustifolia germination.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 20-45cm within rows.
Yield: E. purpurea herb 6,500-11,000kg/ha (years 2-4); E. purpurea root 1000kg/ha (year 4); E. angustifolia root 1100kg/ha (year 4); no data for E. pallida root.
Pests: leafhopper
Diseases: aster yellows (spread by leafhoppers), sclerotinia stem and root rot, botrytis.
Buyers want: certificate of botanical identity required for E. angustifolia; echinacoside 1.4% (roots).
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Sowing rate: 10g/1000plants.
Planting: sow 14 weeks (E. purpurea) to 22 weeks (E. angustifolia, E. pallida) before sale. Stratify or pretreat E. angustifolia and E. pallida seed before sowing (see above).
Seeds to finished plugs: 8-12 weeks (after pretreatment).
Plugs to saleable plants: 6-10 weeks.
Pests: few problems, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Elecampane
(Inula helenium ) |
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Market
|
Products: (root); (root);
Market size: 800 hectares (world), 25 ha (North America).
Prospects: prices same, volume same
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Culture |
Seed density: 600-800 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: moist, deep, well-drained
Crop duration: 2 years.
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Sowing rate: 400-600g/ha (direct); 5g/1000plants (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing not recommended. Start in plugs 8 weeks before spring or late summer field planting.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 45cm within rows.
Yield: 2500kg/ha (year 2).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: erysiphe powdery mildew (late summer), ramularia leafspot, puccinia rust.
Buyers want: not less than 1.8% volatile oil, not more than 6-8% ash, not less than 27% water-soluble extractive, not more than 2% foreign matter.
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Sowing rate: 5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs, seedflats or seed beds. Germination in 4-7 days.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 2-6 weeks.
Pests: spider mite, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Fennel
(Foeniculum vulgare) |
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Market
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Products: (seed); (leaf, bulb); (herb);
Market size: 70,000 hectares (world), 7,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 200-300 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, deep, moderately fertile, pH 7-8.
Crop duration: 2-3 years (florence fennel, 1 year)
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Sowing rate: 4-6kg/ha (direct), 30g/1000plants (indirect).
Planting: sow sweet fennel direct; bronze direct or indirect; florence indirect.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: seed 1000-1600kg/ha (years 2-3), fresh herb 8-10t/ha (year 1-3), dried herb 1.5-2.5t/ha (year 1-3), seed oil 40-75kg/ha.
Pests: aphid, lygus tarnished plant bug
Diseases: sclerotinia stemrot, rhizoctonia damping-off, erwinia soft rot.
Buyers want: not less than 2-4% volatile oil.
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Sowing rate: 30g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots or in plugs. Does not transplant well; best to sow direct.
Seeds to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3 weeks.
Pests: aphid
Diseases: damping-off.
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Fenugreek
(Trigonella foenum-graecum) |
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Market
|
Products: (seeds, leaf, herb); (herb, sprouts); (seed)
Market size: 90,000 hectares (world), 7,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 100 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, warm soil
Crop duration: 1 year.
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Sowing rate: 25-35kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in spring. Broadcast or in close rows.
Field spacing: 20cm between rows x 10-20cm within rows.
Yield: seed 700-900kg/ha, dried forage 2-10t/ha.
Pests: no data
Diseases: no data.
Buyers want: swelling index not less than 6, foreign matter not more than 2-5%, ash not more than 5-6% (seed).
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Feverfew
(Tanacetum parthenium) |
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Market
|
Products: (herb);
Market size: 1,300 hectares (world), 160 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume down
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Culture |
Seed density: 7,500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained, dry soil
Crop duration: 1-2 years
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Sowing rate: 1-1.5 kg/ha (direct); 0.5g/1000plants.
Planting: plugs preferred over direct sowing because seeds very small. Sow plugs 8 weeks before spring planting date. Don't allow to go to seed to avoid winterkill. Frequent fertilization with low nitrogen fertilizer is beneficial. Long days trigger flowering. Short lived perennial; some growers treat as annual.
Field spacing: 20-90cm between rows x 10-20cm within rows.
Yield: 300-5000kg/ha (years 1-2).
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: minimum 0.4-0.8% parthenolide.
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Sowing rate: 0.5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow 14-16 weeks before sales in flats or plug trays.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6-8 weeks.
Pests: aphid, whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
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Scented Geranium
(Pelargonium spp. ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (leaf);
Market size: 4,000 hectares (world), 400 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 360-450 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, neutral to alkaline
Crop duration: 1 year temperate areas, 3-5 year in tropical areas.d o Planting: all commercially important varieties are propagated by cuttings. Plugs planted in spring after last frost date. FieldSpacing: 60-100cm between rows x 20-50cm within rows. Yield: fresh leaf 13-30t/ha, oil 13-17kg/ha (years 1-5). PestsDiseases: aphid, caterpillar / alternaria leaf spot.
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Seeds/ |
Planting: all commercially important varieties are propagated by cuttings. Plugs planted in spring after last frost date.
Field spacing: 60-100cm between rows x 20-50cm within rows.
Yield: fresh leaf 13-30t/ha, oil 13-17kg/ha (years 1-5).
Pests: aphid, caterpillar
Diseases: alternaria leaf spot.
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Sowing rate: 30-80g/1000 plants.
Planting: commercial propagation is by cutting only.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6-8 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, geranium and peach aphid, mite, mealybug, scale
Diseases: various leaf spots including xanthomonas, alternaria, botrytis.
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Gingko
(Ginkgo biloba ) |
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Market
|
Products: (leaf); (seed);
Market size: 5,000 hectares (world), 600 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 1 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: rich, well-drained, moist soil
Crop duration: 20-50+ years
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Sowing rate: 2-4kg/hectare.
Planting: seeds require stratification, 1-2 months warm, then 1-2 months cold, then sow in spring. Common nursery practice is to sow without stratification in outdoor seed beds in fall. Seedlings shaded for 2-3 years and fertilized with manure. Seedlings transplanted to permanent location when 7-8 years old. Trees kept short (2m) and spaced close (2-3m) in commercial plantations for medicinal leaf production; otherwise allowed to grow higher and spaced further for seed production. Slow growing. Leaves harvested in early fall as they begin to turn yellow; dried in sun. Fruits harvested late fall, seeds cleaned and roasted.
Field spacing: 3-5m apart (2-3m within rows for leaf production).
Yield: no data (leaf years 8-50, seed years 20-50).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: tolerates pollution.
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Sowing rate: 2-4kg/1000 plants.
Planting: stratify seed warm (1-2 months) followed by cold (1-2 months). Sow in deep plugs. Keep lightly shaded.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks to 1 year.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8 weeks (10cm pots), 2-5 years (larger plants).
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Ginseng
(Panax quinquefolius, P. ginseng; Eleutherococcus senticosus) |
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Market
|
Products: (root)
Market size: Panax 70,000 hectares (world), 7,400 ha (North America)
Prospects: Panax prices down, volume up. Prospects for woodsgrown Panax much better than shadecloth grown.
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Culture |
Seed density: Panax 15; Eleutherococcus 100 seeds/gram
Exposure: Panax 70% shade; Eleutherococcus 30-50% shade
Soil: well-drained, sandy or clay loam, in raised beds, pH 5.5-6.0
Crop duration: Panax 3-4 years (shadecloth), 4-8 years (woodsgrown); Eleutherococcus 6-12 years
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Sowing rate: 40-100 kg/ha (shadecloth), 10-20 kg/ha (woodsgrown).
Planting: Panax seeds stratified one year. Sow stratified seeds in seedbeds and transplant seedlings to raised beds in years 1-2, or sow direct in raised beds. Mulch with straw. Remove shadecloth over winter. Eleutherococcus seeds need at least cycles of warm-cold stratification; best results obtained when sown in flats in fall and left out over winter under mulch.
Field spacing: Panax 15-20cm between rows x 15-20cm within rows, further apart in woodsgrown plantings; Eleutherococcus 60-100cm apart.
Yield: Panax (shadecloth) 3400kg/ha (years 3-4).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: Panax alternaria leaf blight, rhizoctonia wilt, phytophthora, powdery mildew; Eleutherococcus few problems.
Buyers want: ginsenosides not less than 1.5-2%, ash not more than 4-8%.
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Sowing rate: Panax 150g/1000 plants; Eleutherococcus 250g/1000plants.
Planting: sow stratified Panax seeds in deep plugs, 2-4 seeds per plug, or sow in seed flats. Provide shade, keep cool and well ventilated.
Seeds to finished plugs: Panax 6 months (after stratification).
Plugs to saleable plants: Panax 1 year.
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: Panax alternaria, rhizoctonia.
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Goldenseal
(Hydrastis canadensis) |
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Market
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Products: (root);
Market size: 17,000 hectares (world), 7,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices down, volume up. Majority of market supplied by wildcrafted material, but wild stocks are becoming depleted and now listed on CITES.
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Culture |
Seed density: 50-55 seeds/gram
Exposure: 50-75% Shade
Soil: well-drained, deep, fertile soil, pH 5.5-6.5, in raised beds or on gentle slope.
Crop duration: 3-6 years
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Sowing rate: 10kg/ha (direct), 100g/1000 plants (indirect); rootlets 100,000/ha.
Planting: growers prefer rootlets over seeds because they are more reliable and quicker to harvestable size (3 years); however, seed quality has improved recently and cost of seeds is much less than rootlets. Seeds take 5-6 years to get harvestable roots. Seeds must not dry out; must be sown immediately after harvest in late summer to come up following spring. Avoid straw mulch and fertilize lightly.
Field spacing: 15-40cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: 900-2300kg/ha (year 3-6).
Pests: slugs
Diseases: alternaria, phytophthora, rhizoctonia, botrytis leafspot, fusarium.
Buyers want: min. alkaloids 3.5%.
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Sowing rate: seed 100g/1000plants, rootlets 300-1000/1000 plants.
Planting: for potted plant production, best to start with rootlets. Pot up rootlets 4 weeks before sale. Provide cool, shaded, and well-ventilated conditions; will not tolerate full sun and high humidity.
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: alternaria and other diseases common in potted plants in greenhouses.
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Lavender
(Lavandula angustifolia, L. x intermedia) |
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Market
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Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 9,000 hectares (world), 1,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 850-1300 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained, deep, not too rich, pH 6.5-7.5
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 3-6kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: lavandins (L. x intermedia; e.g. 'Provence' and 'Grosso'), best for commercial flower and oil production, are propagated vegetatively only. Only english types are available in seed form, but seed grown material may not be uniform enough for field production. Direct sowing not recommended; germination is too slow (15-30 days). Sow in seedflats 12-16 weeks before outdoor planting; transplant to plugs at 4-6 weeks, then transplant to field.
Field spacing: 60-120cm between rows x 25-120cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 500-1500kg/ha (years 2-5), oil 8-32kg/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: caterpillar, nematode
Diseases: phoma scab, septoria leaf spot, armillaria root rot.
Buyers want: 1.3% volatile oil or higher, good colour.
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Sowing rate: 5-10g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow 20-26 weeks before sale. Germination of english types (L. angustifolia) is frequently below 50%; scarification or freezing of seedflat can sometimes improve germination.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12-16 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8-10 weeks.
Pests: mealybug, whitefly, spider mite, scale
Diseases: few problems.
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Lemongrass
(Cymbopogon citratus, C. flexuosus) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (stem); (herb);
Market size: 50,000 hectares (world), 2,600 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: C. flexuosus 2000-2400 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, sandy loam, pH 5.5-6.5
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: C. flexuosus 5-10kg/ha (direct).
Planting: C. citratus grown from cuttings only. Sow C. flexuosus in spring. Heavy feeder. Oil quality of C. citratus highest at 18-24 months.
Field spacing: C. citratus 100cm between rows x 45cm within rows; broadcast C. flexuosus, or sow in rows 60-100cm apart.
Yield: C. citratus dry herb 4-6t/ha, oil 30-40kg/ha (years 1-5); C. flexuosus dry herb 10-15t/ha, 80kg/ha (years 1-5).
Pests: no data
Diseases: C. citratus himantia web blight, myriogenospora tangletop, helminthosperium eyespot, papularia.
Buyers want: high citral content.
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Sowing rate: 5g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow C. flexuosus in plugs 13-14 weeks before sale. C. citratus grown from cuttings only.
Seeds to finished plugs: 10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3-8 weeks.
Pests: spider mite, whitefly, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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Licorice
(Glycyrrhiza spp. ) |
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Market
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Products: (root);
Market size: 45,000 hectares (world), 480 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices down, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 400-600 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: deep, rich, moist, sandy, slightly alkaline, pH 7.3-7.8
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 3-4 kg/ha (direct), 5-10g/1000 plants (indirect).
Planting: soak seeds 2-3 hours in 30°C water or scarify before planting to weaken hard seed coat. Sow direct in spring or in deep plugs 12-16 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 70-90cm between rows x 45-90cm within rows.
Yield: G. glabra dry root 10-20t/ha (year 3-5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: uromyces rust, cercospora blight.
Buyers want: minimum 4% glycyrrhizinic acid, minimum 20% water soluble extractive.
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Sowing rate: 5-10g/1000plants.
Planting: soak seed in warm water (30°C) for 2-3 hours or scarify before sowing. Sow in flats or deep plugs 22-26 weeks before sale. Highly susceptible to damping-off; preventative application of damping-off control recommended.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12-16 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: damping-off.
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Lobelia
(Lobelia inflata ) |
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Market
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Products: (seed, herb);
Market size: 9,000 hectares (world), 1,700 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 30,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, rich soil
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 0.2-1kg/ha (direct), 0.1kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow in plugs or seedflats 12 weeks before field planting. Harvest herb when upper flowers are in bloom and lowest flowers have developed seed capsules when lobeline and lobelidine alkaloid content highest.
Field spacing: 30cm between rows x 15cm within rows.
Yield: dry herb 1100kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: wireworms
Diseases: cercospora, phyllosticta and septoria leaf spots.
Buyers want: no data.
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Sowing rate: 0.5g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow in plugs 14 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4-6 weeks.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
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Marjoram
(Origanum majorana) |
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Market
|
Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 12,000 hectares (world), 800 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 3,500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, pH 6.5-7.5
Crop duration: 1 year (2-3 years in zone 9+)
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Sowing rate: 5-6kg/ha (direct), 0.2-0.3kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: requires warmth to do well; germinates best above 15°C daytime and 10°C nighttime. Sow direct in warmer zones; or sow indirect in plugs 12 weeks before field planting in cooler zones.
Field spacing: 30-40cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: 2.5-3t/ha (years 1-3).
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: botrytis gray mold, alternaria, puccinia rust, septoria.
Buyers want: no data.
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Sowing rate: 1g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or direct in pots 6-8 weeks before sale. Minimum 15°C days, 10°C nights.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 2-4 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite, thrip
Diseases: few problems.
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Chinese Milkvetch, Astragalus
(Astragalus membranaceus) |
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Market
|
Products: (root);
Market size: 1,700 hectares (world), 560 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 130-160 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, deep, moist, alkaline
Crop duration: 4-5 years
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Sowing rate: 6-8 kg/ha (direct), 3-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: can be started in deep plugs, but suffers transplant shock easily. Probably better to sow direct in field, in early spring or fall. Scarification helps speed germination. Harvested in fall, lateral roots trimmed, dried partially and then sliced 0.5 cm thick, and then further dried.
Field spacing: 75-100cm between rows x 25cm within rows.
Yield: 7000kg/ha (year 4-5).
Pests: no data
Diseases: unidentified root rot when in wet conditions.
Buyers want: no data.
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Sowing rate: 75g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow in deep plugs 19-20 weeks before sale; transplant before plugs are root-bound. Highly susceptible to mites.
Seeds to finished plugs: 10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 9 weeks.
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: damping-off.
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Mint
(Mentha spp.) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf, herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 240,000 hectares (world), 16,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 17,000-20,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: rich, moist, well-drained, pH 6.5-7
Crop duration: 2-3 years
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Sowing rate: 1 kg/ha (direct), 0.1-0.2kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: commercial plantings propagated vegetatively; seed not suitable because of poor oil quality. Root cuttings planted in early spring or fall. Fields must be rotated every 2-3 years to prevent disease buildup.
Field spacing: 40-90cm between rows x 15-45cm within rows.
Yield: peppermint herb oil 35-125kg/ha, fresh herb 10-25t/ha, dried herb 1-3t/ha (years 2-3).
Pests: nematode, aphid
Diseases: puccinia rust, verticillum wilt, leaf spot, sphaceloma spot anthracnose.
Buyers want: peppermint minimum 1-1.2% volatile oil, not more than 10% leaves spotted with puccinia rust, not more than 5% stems, 2% foreign matter or 11% water.
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Sowing rate: 0.5-1g/1000 plants.
Planting: most cultivars grown from cuttings. Seed material not recommended for pot plant sales.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite, aphid, mealybug
Diseases: rust.
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Nettle
(Urtica dioica ) |
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Market
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Products: (herb, root, leaf, seed);
Market size: 1,600 hectares (world), 240 ha (North America)
Prospects: Prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 6,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun or part shade
Soil: rich, moist, pH 6-7
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 5kg/ha (direct), 0.6kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow in plugs 12 weeks before field planting, or direct in spring.
Field spacing: 30cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: 1000-2000kg/ha (years 3-5).
Pests: no data
Diseases: no data.
Buyers want: maximum 10% stems, 2% other foreign matter, total ash 20%, acid-insoluble ash 4%.
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Sowing rate: 2g/1000 plants (indirect).
Planting: sow in plugs 18 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: spider mite, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Oregano
(Origanum spp. ) |
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Market
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Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 8,000 hectares (world), 2,400 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up Varieties: most oregano is wildcrafted in Europe. In North America, much of the oregano is Lippia graveolens, the mexican variety.
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Culture |
Seed density: 3800-4500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, sandy, dry, pH 6-8
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 2.5-3kg/ha (direct), 0.2-0.5kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: greek variety is best for commercial fresh and dry herb and oil production. Sow direct in spring when soil temperature is at least 15°C, or sow in plugs 6 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 30-40cm between rows x 7-15cm within rows.
Yield: dry herb 1000-3000kg/ha, fresh herb 10-20t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: unspecified fungal diseases can occur in wet weather.
Buyers want: strong scent, good green colour.
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Sowing rate: 0.5-1g/1000 plants.
Planting: most varieties cannot be grown from seeds; only greek variety is raised from seed commercially. Sow in plugs 12 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Parsley
(Petroselinum crispum) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (leaf, root);
Market size: 250,000 hectares (world), 25,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 650-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: tolerates most soils, but rich, well-drained, moist, pH 6-7 is best
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 3-7 kg/ha (direct), 0.5-1.5kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field early spring or fall in warmer zones. Two or three cuts are possible.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 10-20cm within rows.
Yield: fresh herb 5-10t/ha, dry herb 1-2t/ha (year 1).
Pests: carrot root fly
Diseases: septoria and alternaria leaf spot.
Buyers want: good green colour (dry and fresh herb).
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Sowing rate: 2-4g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or direct in pots. Sow 4-5 seeds per plug or 12 per pot.
Seeds to saleable plants: 12 weeks.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite, aphid
Diseases: few problems.
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Alfalfa
(Medicago sativa ) |
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Market
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Products: (seeds, leaf, herb); (herb, sprouts)
Market size: (excluding acreage planted for fodder): 12,000 hectares (world); 5,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices and acreage up
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Culture |
Seed density: 350 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained; pH 6.0-7.5
Crop duration: 1-4 years
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(herb) |
Sowing rate: 9-13kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring, broadcast or sow in rows, 15-30cm apart. Two or more cuts at bud stage possible; last cut 6 weeks before killing frost. Heavy potash and phosphorus feeder.
Yield: dry herb 8-10,000kg/ha (years 1-4).
Pests: weevil, leafminer, leafhopper, snout beetle
Diseases: verticillium wilt, leafspot, phytophthora root rot.
Buyers want: organic product.
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(sprouts) |
Planting: soak seeds overnight; drain, keep moist. Ready in 3-5 days.
Yield: 4kg(sprouts)/kg(seeds).
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Arnica
(A. montana, A. chamissonis) |
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Market
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Products: (flower, root); (flower);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 160 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume down
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Culture |
Seed density: 700-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, humus-rich, pH 7 (A. chamissonis), pH 4.5-6 (A. montana)
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 1-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing not recommended. Sow in seedflats or plugs. Sow A. montana 16-20 weeks before transplanting to field; sow A. chamissonis 12 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 15-60cm between rows x 15-20cm within rows.
Harvest: flower (years 2-5), root (year 3 or 4).
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: chlorosis (yellow leaves) in A. montana caused by alkaline soil.
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Sowing rate: 8-10g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in seedflats or plugs 20 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8 weeks.
Pests: few problems, whitefly occasionally
Diseases: few problems.
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Lemon Balm
(Melissa officinalis) |
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Market
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Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 75 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 2000 seeds/gram
Exposure: sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained clay or sandy loam, pH 6 to 7.5
Crop duration: 2-4 years
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Sowing rate: 7-9kg/ha (direct), 250-400g/ha (indirect, in plugs).
Planting: sowing in plugs in greenhouse in early spring till mid-summer is most common method; sow 6-8 weeks before transplanting to field. Direct sowing is not as common because weed control is more difficult; sow in early spring or late fall (to come up next spring).
Field spacing: 50-75cm between rows x 18-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry herb 5000kg/ha, fresh herb 10-25t/ha (years 1-3).
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: erisyphe powdery mildew, septoria blight, puccinia rust.
Buyers want: dry carefully to conserve oil in dried herb.
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Sowing rate: 3-5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in flats or plugs 11-14 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spidermite, thrip
Diseases: mildew.
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Basil
(Ocimum basilicum, and others ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf, herb); (herb); (oil);
Market size: 10,000 hectares (world), 1,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 500-1000 (O. gratissimum 2600, O. kilamandscharicum 2800, O. sanctum 1500-2500) seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: rich, well-drained
Crop duration: 1 year (O. basilicum), 1-3 years (others)
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Sowing rate: 20kg/ha (direct); 3-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in spring when nighttime temperatures exceed 10°C; or sow in flats or plugs 8 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 15-25cm within rows.
Yield: fresh herb 15,000kg/ha, dry herb 1,500-2,000kg/ha, oil 30kg/ha (year 1)
Pests: aphids, thrips
Diseases: O. basilicum varieties are highly susceptible to fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum) disease. Disease persists in soil for several years. Commercial field plantings should be sown with fusarium-tolerant Nufar F1. Hydroponic operations may choose fusarium-free varieties if equipment and facilities are free of fusarium (spreads by contaminated seeds and equipment). Other basil species (e.g. O. americanum and O. gratissimum) are fusarium-tolerant.
Buyers want: not less than 0.4% essential oil in dried product.
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Sowing rate: 3-4g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in final pots, or in plugs and later transplant to final pots. Nighttime temperature must not go below 10°C.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, thrips, aphids
Diseases: fusarium (see above).
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Bay Laurel
(Laurus nobilis ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (leaf);
Market size: 2,000 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 1 seeds/gram
Exposure: sheltered position in full or half sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, moist
Crop duration: 20-50 years
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Sowing rate: 30-60kg/ha
Planting: sow stratified seeds in beds or flats.
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: leaves dried flat for visual appearance.
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Sowing rate: 5kg/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or flats in March or April.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks (after stratification).
Plugs to saleable plants: 10 weeks to a year.
Pests: whitefly, scale, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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Borage
(Borago officinalis ) |
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Market
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Products: (seed, herb, flower, root); (herb, flower, root), (seed);
Market size: 5,000 hectares (world); 2,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, acreage up
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Culture |
Seed density: 50 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: best in well-drained, fertile, moist soil, but tolerates most soils, pH 5-8
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 5-17 kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in late spring in rows 45-90cm apart, 30-45cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 300kg/ha; fresh flower 1,000-5,000kg/ha; seed 90-450kg/ha.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: 24% gamma lineolenic acid content in seed oil.
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Sowing rate: 50-80g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots or plugs.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
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Burdock
(Arctium lappa) |
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Market
|
Products: (root, leaf); (root);
Market size: 3,000 hectares (world), 170 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 60-110 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or part sun
Soil: deep, loose, humus-rich, pH 6-8
Crop duration: 1-2 years
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Sowing rate: 4 kg/ha (direct), 1.5kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring. Or, sow in beds or plugs and transplant to field in spring. For use as fresh vegetable, dig first year roots when young and tender at 3-5 months. For dry root production, dig in fall of second year.
Field spacing: 45-90cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry root 2,000kg/ha (years 2 or 3).
Pests: few problems, grasshopper
Diseases: few problems.
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Sowing rate: 20g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs 9-10 weeks before sale.
Seeds to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Calendula
(C. officinalis) |
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Market
|
Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 880 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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|
Culture |
Seed density: 150 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained; can tolerate poor soil with low nitrogen.
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 3-9kg/ha (direct), 1kg/ha (indirect in plugs).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring or autumn; or sow in plugs 4-6 weeks before field planting. Seeds need light to germinate; cover seeds lightly or press in soil only.
Field spacing: 20-70cm between rows x 10-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 1-2,000kg/ha, fresh flower 6-9,000kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: blister-beetle, cabbage-looper, caterpillar, leafhopper
Diseases: leaf spot, aster-yellows.
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Sowing rate: 15g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or direct in pots 10-12 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 4-6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, aphid, thrip, mealybug
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Caraway
(Carum carvi) |
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Market
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Products: (seed); (seed)
Market size: 19,000 hectares (world), 2,500 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 350-400 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, pH 6-7.8.
Crop duration: 1-2 years (depending on variety)
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Sowing rate: 8-11 kg/ha.
Planting: sow standard biennial type direct in field late June or early July; harvest following year in August. Sow annual type in May (suited for warmer regions with 5-6 frost-free months). Sometimes sown with annual cover crops such as coriander, dill, mustard the first year.
Field spacing: 10-50cm between rows x 4-15cm within rows.
Yield: seed 600-3,000kg/ha, oil 4.5-7kg/ha (year 1 or 2, depending on variety).
Pests: leafhopper
Diseases: aster yellows.
Buyers want: seed minimum 3% oil, maximum 12% moisture.
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Catnip
(Nepeta cataria ) |
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Market
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Products: (herb, leaf);
Market size: 2,400 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 1500-1600 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or partial sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, sandy, pH 6.5
Crop duration: 2-5 years
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Sowing rate: 12 kg/ha (direct), 1kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring or late fall. Or, sow in plugs 8-10 weeks before field planting. Seed needs light to germinate; sow shallow 2-4mm deep.
Field spacing: 45-90cm between rows x 30-40cm within rows.
Harvest: leaf, herb (years 2-5).
Yield: dry herb 3-6t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
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Sowing rate: 3g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or seedflats 12-15 weeks before sale. Sow 2-4mm deep.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8-10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3-5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
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Chamomile
(Matricaria recutita, Chamaemelum nobile ) |
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Market
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Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 40,000 hectares (world), 4,800 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 10,000-18,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained, moist to dry
Crop duration: 1 year (M. recutita), 2-3 years (C. nobile)
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Sowing rate: 3-4 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect)
Planting: german (M. recutita) is sown direct in field in spring or fall. Fall sowings germinate following spring. Roman (C. nobile) is sown direct or indirect in plugs which are later planted in field. Surface sow only (needs light to germinate). Hand harvesting flowers problematic in areas where labour cost is high; mechanical harvesting still unproven.
Field spacing: 10-50cm between rows x 10-25cm within rows, or broadcast sown.
Yield: dry flower 350-500kg/ha (M. recutita; year 1), 600-1000 kg/ha (C. nobile; years 1-3).
Pests: cnephasia moth
Diseases: aster yellows.
Buyers want: 0.4% or more volatile oil.
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Sowing rate: 1g/1000plants.
Planting: german (M. recutita) not normally sold in pots; roman (C. nobile) and its varieties are sold in pots or plugs. Seeds need light to germinate; surface sow only.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4-6 weeks.
Pests: aphid, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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Chives
(Allium schoenoprasum, A. tuberosum ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf, flower); (leaf, flower);
Market size: 24,000 hectares (world), 3,200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 750 (A. schoenoprasum), 200-300 (A. tuberosum) seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, humus-rich
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 2-3 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring, or sow indirect in plugs 12-16 weeks before field planting. Field must be free of quackgrass otherwise harvests will be contaminated.
Field spacing: 30cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: fresh leaf 10-20t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: aphid
Diseases: puccinia rust, downy mildew.
Buyers want: good green colour (dry leaf).
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Sowing rate: 5-20g/1000plants (A. schoenoprasum), 50g/1000plants (A. tuberosum)
Planting: sow 10-15 seeds per plug or pot, or sow same amount direct in pots.
Seeds to saleable plants: 24-30 weeks.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12-16 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 11 weeks.
Pests: aphid, thrip
Diseases: few problems.
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Comfrey
(Symphytum officinale, S. x uplandicum) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf, root); (root, herb);
Market size: 1,700 hectares (world), 240 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 90-100 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or part sun
Soil: moist, wet or dry
Crop duration: 2-5 years
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Sowing rate: 600-900g/ha (indirect).
Planting: although seed can be sown direct, the high cost of seed dictates indirect sowing in plugs or seedbed and transplanting to field. Root cuttings (12,000/ha) of named cultivars (e.g. Bocking No. 14) recommended over seed.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 90cm within rows.
Yield: dry leaf 12t/ha (years 2-5), dry root 1,800kg/ha (year 3, 4 or 5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: comfrey rust.
Buyers want: low pyrrolizidine alkaloid content, particularly echimidine; leaf should be cut early to avoid alkaloid buildup.
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Sowing rate: 50-70g/1000plants.
Planting: sow S. officinale in plugs or seedflats 12-14 weeks before sale. S. x uplandicum and ornamental varieties are propagated by division or root cutting.
Seeds to saleable plants: 12 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, aphid
Diseases: comfrey rust.
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Coriander, Cilantro
(Coriandrum sativum) |
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Market
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Products: (seed); (herb); (seed, herb);
Market size: 600,000 hectares (world), 5,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 110-150 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun (seed), full or half sun (fresh herb)
Soil: deep, fertile, light or heavy, well-drained, pH 6.5-7.5
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 25 kg/ha (seed), 80 kg/ha (fresh herb).
Planting: for seed and seed oil production, sow direct in spring. For fresh herb (cilantro) and herb oil production sow early spring and fall; will bolt in hot weather.
Field spacing: 50-60cm between rows x 11-13cm between plants (seed), 20-25cm between rows x 8-10cm (fresh herb).
Yield: seed 900-1,500kg/ha, fresh herb 10-12t/ha, oil 1-9kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: thrip
Diseases: asters yellow, erysiphe powdery mildew, puccinia rust, pseudamonas, and sclerotina.
Buyers want: less than 12% moisture.
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Sowing rate: 200g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots; do not transplant – root disturbance causes plants to bolt early.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: aphid, thrip, mite, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Dandelion
(Taraxacum officinale) |
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Market
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Products: (root, herb); (leaf)
Market size: 7,000 hectares (world); 500 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 1200-1900 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: most soils
Crop duration: 2 years (root), 1-4 years (fresh leaf)
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Sowing rate: 1-3kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring or late summer. Fresh leaf gathered as vegetable spring, summer and fall. Herb for drying harvested spring or summer. Roots dug late fall.
Field spacing: 45cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: dry root 1100-1700kg/ha (year 2).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: water-soluble extractive not less than 30%.
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Dill
(Anethum graveolens, A. sowa ) |
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Market
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Products: (seed, herb); (leaf); (leaf, seed);
Market size: 37,000 hectares (world), 4,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices same, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 400-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, moderately rich, loose soil, pH 5.5-6.5
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 9-12 kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in spring.
Field spacing: 25-50cm between rows; thin to 10cm within rows for fresh herb production or 2-3cm within rows for seed production.
Yield: seed 600-900kg/ha, fresh herb 2500-5000kg/ha, dried herb 1000kg/ha, oil 50-110kg/ha.
Pests: aphid, tarnished plant bug
Diseases: powdery mildew, leafspot, aster yellows.
Buyers want: good green colour (dried leaf).
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Sowing rate: 15-40g/1000pots.
Planting: do not transplant; sow direct in pots, 8-20 seeds per pot.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: aphid
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Echinacea
(Echinacea purpurea, E. angustifolia, E. pallida ) |
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Market
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Products: (root, herb, flower, seed); (herb);
Market size: 16,000 hectares (world), 4,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices down, acreage up; market for E. purpurea herb is weak.
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Culture |
Seed density: 160-500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained, pH 6-7.5
Crop duration: 3-4 years
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Sowing rate: 14-18 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: E. purpurea seeds do not require pretreatment. Can be started in plugs and transplanted to the field, which is the preferred method, or can be sown direct in the field. Sow E. purpurea 100-120 days before field planting; sow E. angustifolia and E. pallida 150 days before planting. E. angustifolia and E. pallida germination benefits from pretreatment; stratify at 5°C for 4-12 weeks with light. Pretreatment with Ethrel (1 millimolar for 2 weeks), or with bleach (1% for 10 min.) improves E. angustifolia germination.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 20-45cm within rows.
Yield: E. purpurea herb 6,500-11,000kg/ha (years 2-4); E. purpurea root 1000kg/ha (year 4); E. angustifolia root 1100kg/ha (year 4); no data for E. pallida root.
Pests: leafhopper
Diseases: aster yellows (spread by leafhoppers), sclerotinia stem and root rot, botrytis.
Buyers want: certificate of botanical identity required for E. angustifolia; echinacoside 1.4% (roots).
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Sowing rate: 10g/1000plants.
Planting: sow 14 weeks (E. purpurea) to 22 weeks (E. angustifolia, E. pallida) before sale. Stratify or pretreat E. angustifolia and E. pallida seed before sowing (see above).
Seeds to finished plugs: 8-12 weeks (after pretreatment).
Plugs to saleable plants: 6-10 weeks.
Pests: few problems, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Elecampane
(Inula helenium ) |
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Market
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Products: (root); (root);
Market size: 800 hectares (world), 25 ha (North America).
Prospects: prices same, volume same
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Culture |
Seed density: 600-800 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: moist, deep, well-drained
Crop duration: 2 years.
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Sowing rate: 400-600g/ha (direct); 5g/1000plants (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing not recommended. Start in plugs 8 weeks before spring or late summer field planting.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 45cm within rows.
Yield: 2500kg/ha (year 2).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: erysiphe powdery mildew (late summer), ramularia leafspot, puccinia rust.
Buyers want: not less than 1.8% volatile oil, not more than 6-8% ash, not less than 27% water-soluble extractive, not more than 2% foreign matter.
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Sowing rate: 5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs, seedflats or seed beds. Germination in 4-7 days.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 2-6 weeks.
Pests: spider mite, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Fennel
(Foeniculum vulgare) |
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Market
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Products: (seed); (leaf, bulb); (herb);
Market size: 70,000 hectares (world), 7,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 200-300 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, deep, moderately fertile, pH 7-8.
Crop duration: 2-3 years (florence fennel, 1 year)
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Sowing rate: 4-6kg/ha (direct), 30g/1000plants (indirect).
Planting: sow sweet fennel direct; bronze direct or indirect; florence indirect.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: seed 1000-1600kg/ha (years 2-3), fresh herb 8-10t/ha (year 1-3), dried herb 1.5-2.5t/ha (year 1-3), seed oil 40-75kg/ha.
Pests: aphid, lygus tarnished plant bug
Diseases: sclerotinia stemrot, rhizoctonia damping-off, erwinia soft rot.
Buyers want: not less than 2-4% volatile oil.
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Sowing rate: 30g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots or in plugs. Does not transplant well; best to sow direct.
Seeds to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3 weeks.
Pests: aphid
Diseases: damping-off.
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Fenugreek
(Trigonella foenum-graecum) |
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Market
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Products: (seeds, leaf, herb); (herb, sprouts); (seed)
Market size: 90,000 hectares (world), 7,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 100 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, warm soil
Crop duration: 1 year.
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Sowing rate: 25-35kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in spring. Broadcast or in close rows.
Field spacing: 20cm between rows x 10-20cm within rows.
Yield: seed 700-900kg/ha, dried forage 2-10t/ha.
Pests: no data
Diseases: no data.
Buyers want: swelling index not less than 6, foreign matter not more than 2-5%, ash not more than 5-6% (seed).
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Feverfew
(Tanacetum parthenium) |
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Market
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Products: (herb);
Market size: 1,300 hectares (world), 160 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume down
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Culture |
Seed density: 7,500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained, dry soil
Crop duration: 1-2 years
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Sowing rate: 1-1.5 kg/ha (direct); 0.5g/1000plants.
Planting: plugs preferred over direct sowing because seeds very small. Sow plugs 8 weeks before spring planting date. Don't allow to go to seed to avoid winterkill. Frequent fertilization with low nitrogen fertilizer is beneficial. Long days trigger flowering. Short lived perennial; some growers treat as annual.
Field spacing: 20-90cm between rows x 10-20cm within rows.
Yield: 300-5000kg/ha (years 1-2).
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: minimum 0.4-0.8% parthenolide.
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Sowing rate: 0.5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow 14-16 weeks before sales in flats or plug trays.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6-8 weeks.
Pests: aphid, whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
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Scented Geranium
(Pelargonium spp. ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (leaf);
Market size: 4,000 hectares (world), 400 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 360-450 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, neutral to alkaline
Crop duration: 1 year temperate areas, 3-5 year in tropical areas.d o Planting: all commercially important varieties are propagated by cuttings. Plugs planted in spring after last frost date. FieldSpacing: 60-100cm between rows x 20-50cm within rows. Yield: fresh leaf 13-30t/ha, oil 13-17kg/ha (years 1-5). PestsDiseases: aphid, caterpillar / alternaria leaf spot.
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Seeds/ |
Planting: all commercially important varieties are propagated by cuttings. Plugs planted in spring after last frost date.
Field spacing: 60-100cm between rows x 20-50cm within rows.
Yield: fresh leaf 13-30t/ha, oil 13-17kg/ha (years 1-5).
Pests: aphid, caterpillar
Diseases: alternaria leaf spot.
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Sowing rate: 30-80g/1000 plants.
Planting: commercial propagation is by cutting only.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6-8 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, geranium and peach aphid, mite, mealybug, scale
Diseases: various leaf spots including xanthomonas, alternaria, botrytis.
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Gingko
(Ginkgo biloba ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (seed);
Market size: 5,000 hectares (world), 600 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 1 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: rich, well-drained, moist soil
Crop duration: 20-50+ years
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Sowing rate: 2-4kg/hectare.
Planting: seeds require stratification, 1-2 months warm, then 1-2 months cold, then sow in spring. Common nursery practice is to sow without stratification in outdoor seed beds in fall. Seedlings shaded for 2-3 years and fertilized with manure. Seedlings transplanted to permanent location when 7-8 years old. Trees kept short (2m) and spaced close (2-3m) in commercial plantations for medicinal leaf production; otherwise allowed to grow higher and spaced further for seed production. Slow growing. Leaves harvested in early fall as they begin to turn yellow; dried in sun. Fruits harvested late fall, seeds cleaned and roasted.
Field spacing: 3-5m apart (2-3m within rows for leaf production).
Yield: no data (leaf years 8-50, seed years 20-50).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: tolerates pollution.
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Sowing rate: 2-4kg/1000 plants.
Planting: stratify seed warm (1-2 months) followed by cold (1-2 months). Sow in deep plugs. Keep lightly shaded.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks to 1 year.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8 weeks (10cm pots), 2-5 years (larger plants).
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Ginseng
(Panax quinquefolius, P. ginseng; Eleutherococcus senticosus) |
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Market
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Products: (root)
Market size: Panax 70,000 hectares (world), 7,400 ha (North America)
Prospects: Panax prices down, volume up. Prospects for woodsgrown Panax much better than shadecloth grown.
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Culture |
Seed density: Panax 15; Eleutherococcus 100 seeds/gram
Exposure: Panax 70% shade; Eleutherococcus 30-50% shade
Soil: well-drained, sandy or clay loam, in raised beds, pH 5.5-6.0
Crop duration: Panax 3-4 years (shadecloth), 4-8 years (woodsgrown); Eleutherococcus 6-12 years
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Sowing rate: 40-100 kg/ha (shadecloth), 10-20 kg/ha (woodsgrown).
Planting: Panax seeds stratified one year. Sow stratified seeds in seedbeds and transplant seedlings to raised beds in years 1-2, or sow direct in raised beds. Mulch with straw. Remove shadecloth over winter. Eleutherococcus seeds need at least cycles of warm-cold stratification; best results obtained when sown in flats in fall and left out over winter under mulch.
Field spacing: Panax 15-20cm between rows x 15-20cm within rows, further apart in woodsgrown plantings; Eleutherococcus 60-100cm apart.
Yield: Panax (shadecloth) 3400kg/ha (years 3-4).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: Panax alternaria leaf blight, rhizoctonia wilt, phytophthora, powdery mildew; Eleutherococcus few problems.
Buyers want: ginsenosides not less than 1.5-2%, ash not more than 4-8%.
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Sowing rate: Panax 150g/1000 plants; Eleutherococcus 250g/1000plants.
Planting: sow stratified Panax seeds in deep plugs, 2-4 seeds per plug, or sow in seed flats. Provide shade, keep cool and well ventilated.
Seeds to finished plugs: Panax 6 months (after stratification).
Plugs to saleable plants: Panax 1 year.
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: Panax alternaria, rhizoctonia.
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Goldenseal
(Hydrastis canadensis) |
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Market
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Products: (root);
Market size: 17,000 hectares (world), 7,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices down, volume up. Majority of market supplied by wildcrafted material, but wild stocks are becoming depleted and now listed on CITES.
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Culture |
Seed density: 50-55 seeds/gram
Exposure: 50-75% Shade
Soil: well-drained, deep, fertile soil, pH 5.5-6.5, in raised beds or on gentle slope.
Crop duration: 3-6 years
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Sowing rate: 10kg/ha (direct), 100g/1000 plants (indirect); rootlets 100,000/ha.
Planting: growers prefer rootlets over seeds because they are more reliable and quicker to harvestable size (3 years); however, seed quality has improved recently and cost of seeds is much less than rootlets. Seeds take 5-6 years to get harvestable roots. Seeds must not dry out; must be sown immediately after harvest in late summer to come up following spring. Avoid straw mulch and fertilize lightly.
Field spacing: 15-40cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: 900-2300kg/ha (year 3-6).
Pests: slugs
Diseases: alternaria, phytophthora, rhizoctonia, botrytis leafspot, fusarium.
Buyers want: min. alkaloids 3.5%.
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Sowing rate: seed 100g/1000plants, rootlets 300-1000/1000 plants.
Planting: for potted plant production, best to start with rootlets. Pot up rootlets 4 weeks before sale. Provide cool, shaded, and well-ventilated conditions; will not tolerate full sun and high humidity.
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: alternaria and other diseases common in potted plants in greenhouses.
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Lavender
(Lavandula angustifolia, L. x intermedia) |
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Market
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Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 9,000 hectares (world), 1,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 850-1300 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained, deep, not too rich, pH 6.5-7.5
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 3-6kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: lavandins (L. x intermedia; e.g. 'Provence' and 'Grosso'), best for commercial flower and oil production, are propagated vegetatively only. Only english types are available in seed form, but seed grown material may not be uniform enough for field production. Direct sowing not recommended; germination is too slow (15-30 days). Sow in seedflats 12-16 weeks before outdoor planting; transplant to plugs at 4-6 weeks, then transplant to field.
Field spacing: 60-120cm between rows x 25-120cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 500-1500kg/ha (years 2-5), oil 8-32kg/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: caterpillar, nematode
Diseases: phoma scab, septoria leaf spot, armillaria root rot.
Buyers want: 1.3% volatile oil or higher, good colour.
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Sowing rate: 5-10g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow 20-26 weeks before sale. Germination of english types (L. angustifolia) is frequently below 50%; scarification or freezing of seedflat can sometimes improve germination.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12-16 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8-10 weeks.
Pests: mealybug, whitefly, spider mite, scale
Diseases: few problems.
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Lemongrass
(Cymbopogon citratus, C. flexuosus) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (stem); (herb);
Market size: 50,000 hectares (world), 2,600 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: C. flexuosus 2000-2400 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, sandy loam, pH 5.5-6.5
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: C. flexuosus 5-10kg/ha (direct).
Planting: C. citratus grown from cuttings only. Sow C. flexuosus in spring. Heavy feeder. Oil quality of C. citratus highest at 18-24 months.
Field spacing: C. citratus 100cm between rows x 45cm within rows; broadcast C. flexuosus, or sow in rows 60-100cm apart.
Yield: C. citratus dry herb 4-6t/ha, oil 30-40kg/ha (years 1-5); C. flexuosus dry herb 10-15t/ha, 80kg/ha (years 1-5).
Pests: no data
Diseases: C. citratus himantia web blight, myriogenospora tangletop, helminthosperium eyespot, papularia.
Buyers want: high citral content.
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Sowing rate: 5g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow C. flexuosus in plugs 13-14 weeks before sale. C. citratus grown from cuttings only.
Seeds to finished plugs: 10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3-8 weeks.
Pests: spider mite, whitefly, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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Licorice
(Glycyrrhiza spp. ) |
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Market
|
Products: (root);
Market size: 45,000 hectares (world), 480 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices down, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 400-600 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: deep, rich, moist, sandy, slightly alkaline, pH 7.3-7.8
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 3-4 kg/ha (direct), 5-10g/1000 plants (indirect).
Planting: soak seeds 2-3 hours in 30°C water or scarify before planting to weaken hard seed coat. Sow direct in spring or in deep plugs 12-16 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 70-90cm between rows x 45-90cm within rows.
Yield: G. glabra dry root 10-20t/ha (year 3-5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: uromyces rust, cercospora blight.
Buyers want: minimum 4% glycyrrhizinic acid, minimum 20% water soluble extractive.
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Sowing rate: 5-10g/1000plants.
Planting: soak seed in warm water (30°C) for 2-3 hours or scarify before sowing. Sow in flats or deep plugs 22-26 weeks before sale. Highly susceptible to damping-off; preventative application of damping-off control recommended.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12-16 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: damping-off.
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Lobelia
(Lobelia inflata ) |
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Market
|
Products: (seed, herb);
Market size: 9,000 hectares (world), 1,700 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 30,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, rich soil
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 0.2-1kg/ha (direct), 0.1kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow in plugs or seedflats 12 weeks before field planting. Harvest herb when upper flowers are in bloom and lowest flowers have developed seed capsules when lobeline and lobelidine alkaloid content highest.
Field spacing: 30cm between rows x 15cm within rows.
Yield: dry herb 1100kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: wireworms
Diseases: cercospora, phyllosticta and septoria leaf spots.
Buyers want: no data.
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Sowing rate: 0.5g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow in plugs 14 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4-6 weeks.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
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Marjoram
(Origanum majorana) |
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Market
|
Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 12,000 hectares (world), 800 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 3,500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, pH 6.5-7.5
Crop duration: 1 year (2-3 years in zone 9+)
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Sowing rate: 5-6kg/ha (direct), 0.2-0.3kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: requires warmth to do well; germinates best above 15°C daytime and 10°C nighttime. Sow direct in warmer zones; or sow indirect in plugs 12 weeks before field planting in cooler zones.
Field spacing: 30-40cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: 2.5-3t/ha (years 1-3).
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: botrytis gray mold, alternaria, puccinia rust, septoria.
Buyers want: no data.
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Sowing rate: 1g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or direct in pots 6-8 weeks before sale. Minimum 15°C days, 10°C nights.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 2-4 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite, thrip
Diseases: few problems.
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Chinese Milkvetch, Astragalus
(Astragalus membranaceus) |
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Market
|
Products: (root);
Market size: 1,700 hectares (world), 560 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 130-160 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, deep, moist, alkaline
Crop duration: 4-5 years
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Sowing rate: 6-8 kg/ha (direct), 3-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: can be started in deep plugs, but suffers transplant shock easily. Probably better to sow direct in field, in early spring or fall. Scarification helps speed germination. Harvested in fall, lateral roots trimmed, dried partially and then sliced 0.5 cm thick, and then further dried.
Field spacing: 75-100cm between rows x 25cm within rows.
Yield: 7000kg/ha (year 4-5).
Pests: no data
Diseases: unidentified root rot when in wet conditions.
Buyers want: no data.
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Sowing rate: 75g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow in deep plugs 19-20 weeks before sale; transplant before plugs are root-bound. Highly susceptible to mites.
Seeds to finished plugs: 10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 9 weeks.
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: damping-off.
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Mint
(Mentha spp.) |
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Market
|
Products: (leaf, herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 240,000 hectares (world), 16,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 17,000-20,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: rich, moist, well-drained, pH 6.5-7
Crop duration: 2-3 years
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Sowing rate: 1 kg/ha (direct), 0.1-0.2kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: commercial plantings propagated vegetatively; seed not suitable because of poor oil quality. Root cuttings planted in early spring or fall. Fields must be rotated every 2-3 years to prevent disease buildup.
Field spacing: 40-90cm between rows x 15-45cm within rows.
Yield: peppermint herb oil 35-125kg/ha, fresh herb 10-25t/ha, dried herb 1-3t/ha (years 2-3).
Pests: nematode, aphid
Diseases: puccinia rust, verticillum wilt, leaf spot, sphaceloma spot anthracnose.
Buyers want: peppermint minimum 1-1.2% volatile oil, not more than 10% leaves spotted with puccinia rust, not more than 5% stems, 2% foreign matter or 11% water.
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Sowing rate: 0.5-1g/1000 plants.
Planting: most cultivars grown from cuttings. Seed material not recommended for pot plant sales.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite, aphid, mealybug
Diseases: rust.
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Nettle
(Urtica dioica ) |
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Market
|
Products: (herb, root, leaf, seed);
Market size: 1,600 hectares (world), 240 ha (North America)
Prospects: Prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 6,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun or part shade
Soil: rich, moist, pH 6-7
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 5kg/ha (direct), 0.6kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow in plugs 12 weeks before field planting, or direct in spring.
Field spacing: 30cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: 1000-2000kg/ha (years 3-5).
Pests: no data
Diseases: no data.
Buyers want: maximum 10% stems, 2% other foreign matter, total ash 20%, acid-insoluble ash 4%.
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Sowing rate: 2g/1000 plants (indirect).
Planting: sow in plugs 18 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: spider mite, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Oregano
(Origanum spp. ) |
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Market
|
Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 8,000 hectares (world), 2,400 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up Varieties: most oregano is wildcrafted in Europe. In North America, much of the oregano is Lippia graveolens, the mexican variety.
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Culture |
Seed density: 3800-4500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, sandy, dry, pH 6-8
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 2.5-3kg/ha (direct), 0.2-0.5kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: greek variety is best for commercial fresh and dry herb and oil production. Sow direct in spring when soil temperature is at least 15°C, or sow in plugs 6 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 30-40cm between rows x 7-15cm within rows.
Yield: dry herb 1000-3000kg/ha, fresh herb 10-20t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: unspecified fungal diseases can occur in wet weather.
Buyers want: strong scent, good green colour.
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Sowing rate: 0.5-1g/1000 plants.
Planting: most varieties cannot be grown from seeds; only greek variety is raised from seed commercially. Sow in plugs 12 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Parsley
(Petroselinum crispum) |
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Market
|
Products: (leaf); (leaf, root);
Market size: 250,000 hectares (world), 25,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 650-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: tolerates most soils, but rich, well-drained, moist, pH 6-7 is best
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 3-7 kg/ha (direct), 0.5-1.5kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field early spring or fall in warmer zones. Two or three cuts are possible.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 10-20cm within rows.
Yield: fresh herb 5-10t/ha, dry herb 1-2t/ha (year 1).
Pests: carrot root fly
Diseases: septoria and alternaria leaf spot.
Buyers want: good green colour (dry and fresh herb).
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Sowing rate: 2-4g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or direct in pots. Sow 4-5 seeds per plug or 12 per pot.
Seeds to saleable plants: 12 weeks.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite, aphid
Diseases: few problems.
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Chile Pepper
(Capsicum annuum, C. spp.) |
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Market
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Products: (fruit); (fruit);
Market size: 100,000 hectares (world), 10,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 80-250 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained, loam, pH 6.5-7.5
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 10kg/ha (direct), 0.5-1kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: should not follow in soils where pepper, eggplant, tobacco, potato, tomato and other Solanaceae were grown previously. Needs 21-30°C to do well. Minimum 16°C soil temperature required for germination In cooler temperate zones. Sow in flats or plugs 8-12 weeks before spring field planting. In warmer zones (e.g. southern U.S.), can be sown direct in field. Cultivation similar to bell peppers, except longer, warmer season required (65-80 days). Easily killed by frost. Excess nitrogen feeding will reduce fruit production. Irrigation necessary in drier areas; can improve yields 6-fold.
Field spacing: 90-130cm between rows x 30-60cm within rows.
Yield: fresh fruit 8-15t/ha, dry fruit 2t/ha (year 1).
Pests: aphid, ground beetle, pepper weevil
Diseases: xanthomonas bacterial spot, anthracnose, and many others.
Buyers want: varies greatly depending on the market.
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Sowing rate: 10-25g/1000plants.
Planting: sow 10-12 weeks before sale. Sow in flats or plugs. Mostly sold in 4- or 6-packs in spring like bedding annuals, or in pots.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite, aphid
Diseases: few problems.
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Alfalfa
(Medicago sativa ) |
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Market
|
Products: (seeds, leaf, herb); (herb, sprouts)
Market size: (excluding acreage planted for fodder): 12,000 hectares (world); 5,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices and acreage up
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Culture |
Seed density: 350 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained; pH 6.0-7.5
Crop duration: 1-4 years
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(herb) |
Sowing rate: 9-13kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring, broadcast or sow in rows, 15-30cm apart. Two or more cuts at bud stage possible; last cut 6 weeks before killing frost. Heavy potash and phosphorus feeder.
Yield: dry herb 8-10,000kg/ha (years 1-4).
Pests: weevil, leafminer, leafhopper, snout beetle
Diseases: verticillium wilt, leafspot, phytophthora root rot.
Buyers want: organic product.
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(sprouts) |
Planting: soak seeds overnight; drain, keep moist. Ready in 3-5 days.
Yield: 4kg(sprouts)/kg(seeds).
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Arnica
(A. montana, A. chamissonis) |
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Market
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Products: (flower, root); (flower);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 160 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume down
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Culture |
Seed density: 700-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, humus-rich, pH 7 (A. chamissonis), pH 4.5-6 (A. montana)
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 1-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing not recommended. Sow in seedflats or plugs. Sow A. montana 16-20 weeks before transplanting to field; sow A. chamissonis 12 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 15-60cm between rows x 15-20cm within rows.
Harvest: flower (years 2-5), root (year 3 or 4).
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: chlorosis (yellow leaves) in A. montana caused by alkaline soil.
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Sowing rate: 8-10g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in seedflats or plugs 20 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8 weeks.
Pests: few problems, whitefly occasionally
Diseases: few problems.
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Lemon Balm
(Melissa officinalis) |
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Market
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Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 75 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 2000 seeds/gram
Exposure: sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained clay or sandy loam, pH 6 to 7.5
Crop duration: 2-4 years
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Sowing rate: 7-9kg/ha (direct), 250-400g/ha (indirect, in plugs).
Planting: sowing in plugs in greenhouse in early spring till mid-summer is most common method; sow 6-8 weeks before transplanting to field. Direct sowing is not as common because weed control is more difficult; sow in early spring or late fall (to come up next spring).
Field spacing: 50-75cm between rows x 18-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry herb 5000kg/ha, fresh herb 10-25t/ha (years 1-3).
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: erisyphe powdery mildew, septoria blight, puccinia rust.
Buyers want: dry carefully to conserve oil in dried herb.
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Sowing rate: 3-5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in flats or plugs 11-14 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spidermite, thrip
Diseases: mildew.
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Basil
(Ocimum basilicum, and others ) |
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Market
|
Products: (leaf, herb); (herb); (oil);
Market size: 10,000 hectares (world), 1,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 500-1000 (O. gratissimum 2600, O. kilamandscharicum 2800, O. sanctum 1500-2500) seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: rich, well-drained
Crop duration: 1 year (O. basilicum), 1-3 years (others)
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Sowing rate: 20kg/ha (direct); 3-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in spring when nighttime temperatures exceed 10°C; or sow in flats or plugs 8 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 15-25cm within rows.
Yield: fresh herb 15,000kg/ha, dry herb 1,500-2,000kg/ha, oil 30kg/ha (year 1)
Pests: aphids, thrips
Diseases: O. basilicum varieties are highly susceptible to fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum) disease. Disease persists in soil for several years. Commercial field plantings should be sown with fusarium-tolerant Nufar F1. Hydroponic operations may choose fusarium-free varieties if equipment and facilities are free of fusarium (spreads by contaminated seeds and equipment). Other basil species (e.g. O. americanum and O. gratissimum) are fusarium-tolerant.
Buyers want: not less than 0.4% essential oil in dried product.
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Sowing rate: 3-4g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in final pots, or in plugs and later transplant to final pots. Nighttime temperature must not go below 10°C.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, thrips, aphids
Diseases: fusarium (see above).
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Bay Laurel
(Laurus nobilis ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (leaf);
Market size: 2,000 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 1 seeds/gram
Exposure: sheltered position in full or half sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, moist
Crop duration: 20-50 years
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Sowing rate: 30-60kg/ha
Planting: sow stratified seeds in beds or flats.
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: leaves dried flat for visual appearance.
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Sowing rate: 5kg/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or flats in March or April.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks (after stratification).
Plugs to saleable plants: 10 weeks to a year.
Pests: whitefly, scale, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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Borage
(Borago officinalis ) |
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Market
|
Products: (seed, herb, flower, root); (herb, flower, root), (seed);
Market size: 5,000 hectares (world); 2,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, acreage up
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Culture |
Seed density: 50 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: best in well-drained, fertile, moist soil, but tolerates most soils, pH 5-8
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 5-17 kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in late spring in rows 45-90cm apart, 30-45cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 300kg/ha; fresh flower 1,000-5,000kg/ha; seed 90-450kg/ha.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: 24% gamma lineolenic acid content in seed oil.
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Sowing rate: 50-80g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots or plugs.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
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Burdock
(Arctium lappa) |
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Market
|
Products: (root, leaf); (root);
Market size: 3,000 hectares (world), 170 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 60-110 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or part sun
Soil: deep, loose, humus-rich, pH 6-8
Crop duration: 1-2 years
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Sowing rate: 4 kg/ha (direct), 1.5kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring. Or, sow in beds or plugs and transplant to field in spring. For use as fresh vegetable, dig first year roots when young and tender at 3-5 months. For dry root production, dig in fall of second year.
Field spacing: 45-90cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry root 2,000kg/ha (years 2 or 3).
Pests: few problems, grasshopper
Diseases: few problems.
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Sowing rate: 20g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs 9-10 weeks before sale.
Seeds to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Calendula
(C. officinalis) |
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Market
|
Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 880 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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|
Culture |
Seed density: 150 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained; can tolerate poor soil with low nitrogen.
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 3-9kg/ha (direct), 1kg/ha (indirect in plugs).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring or autumn; or sow in plugs 4-6 weeks before field planting. Seeds need light to germinate; cover seeds lightly or press in soil only.
Field spacing: 20-70cm between rows x 10-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 1-2,000kg/ha, fresh flower 6-9,000kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: blister-beetle, cabbage-looper, caterpillar, leafhopper
Diseases: leaf spot, aster-yellows.
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Sowing rate: 15g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or direct in pots 10-12 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 4-6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, aphid, thrip, mealybug
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Caraway
(Carum carvi) |
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Market
|
Products: (seed); (seed)
Market size: 19,000 hectares (world), 2,500 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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|
Culture |
Seed density: 350-400 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, pH 6-7.8.
Crop duration: 1-2 years (depending on variety)
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Sowing rate: 8-11 kg/ha.
Planting: sow standard biennial type direct in field late June or early July; harvest following year in August. Sow annual type in May (suited for warmer regions with 5-6 frost-free months). Sometimes sown with annual cover crops such as coriander, dill, mustard the first year.
Field spacing: 10-50cm between rows x 4-15cm within rows.
Yield: seed 600-3,000kg/ha, oil 4.5-7kg/ha (year 1 or 2, depending on variety).
Pests: leafhopper
Diseases: aster yellows.
Buyers want: seed minimum 3% oil, maximum 12% moisture.
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Catnip
(Nepeta cataria ) |
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Market
|
Products: (herb, leaf);
Market size: 2,400 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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|
Culture |
Seed density: 1500-1600 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or partial sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, sandy, pH 6.5
Crop duration: 2-5 years
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Sowing rate: 12 kg/ha (direct), 1kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring or late fall. Or, sow in plugs 8-10 weeks before field planting. Seed needs light to germinate; sow shallow 2-4mm deep.
Field spacing: 45-90cm between rows x 30-40cm within rows.
Harvest: leaf, herb (years 2-5).
Yield: dry herb 3-6t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
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|
|
Sowing rate: 3g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or seedflats 12-15 weeks before sale. Sow 2-4mm deep.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8-10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3-5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
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Chamomile
(Matricaria recutita, Chamaemelum nobile ) |
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Market
|
Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 40,000 hectares (world), 4,800 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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|
Culture |
Seed density: 10,000-18,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained, moist to dry
Crop duration: 1 year (M. recutita), 2-3 years (C. nobile)
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Sowing rate: 3-4 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect)
Planting: german (M. recutita) is sown direct in field in spring or fall. Fall sowings germinate following spring. Roman (C. nobile) is sown direct or indirect in plugs which are later planted in field. Surface sow only (needs light to germinate). Hand harvesting flowers problematic in areas where labour cost is high; mechanical harvesting still unproven.
Field spacing: 10-50cm between rows x 10-25cm within rows, or broadcast sown.
Yield: dry flower 350-500kg/ha (M. recutita; year 1), 600-1000 kg/ha (C. nobile; years 1-3).
Pests: cnephasia moth
Diseases: aster yellows.
Buyers want: 0.4% or more volatile oil.
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Sowing rate: 1g/1000plants.
Planting: german (M. recutita) not normally sold in pots; roman (C. nobile) and its varieties are sold in pots or plugs. Seeds need light to germinate; surface sow only.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4-6 weeks.
Pests: aphid, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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Chives
(Allium schoenoprasum, A. tuberosum ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf, flower); (leaf, flower);
Market size: 24,000 hectares (world), 3,200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 750 (A. schoenoprasum), 200-300 (A. tuberosum) seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, humus-rich
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 2-3 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring, or sow indirect in plugs 12-16 weeks before field planting. Field must be free of quackgrass otherwise harvests will be contaminated.
Field spacing: 30cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: fresh leaf 10-20t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: aphid
Diseases: puccinia rust, downy mildew.
Buyers want: good green colour (dry leaf).
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Sowing rate: 5-20g/1000plants (A. schoenoprasum), 50g/1000plants (A. tuberosum)
Planting: sow 10-15 seeds per plug or pot, or sow same amount direct in pots.
Seeds to saleable plants: 24-30 weeks.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12-16 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 11 weeks.
Pests: aphid, thrip
Diseases: few problems.
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Comfrey
(Symphytum officinale, S. x uplandicum) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf, root); (root, herb);
Market size: 1,700 hectares (world), 240 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 90-100 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or part sun
Soil: moist, wet or dry
Crop duration: 2-5 years
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Sowing rate: 600-900g/ha (indirect).
Planting: although seed can be sown direct, the high cost of seed dictates indirect sowing in plugs or seedbed and transplanting to field. Root cuttings (12,000/ha) of named cultivars (e.g. Bocking No. 14) recommended over seed.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 90cm within rows.
Yield: dry leaf 12t/ha (years 2-5), dry root 1,800kg/ha (year 3, 4 or 5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: comfrey rust.
Buyers want: low pyrrolizidine alkaloid content, particularly echimidine; leaf should be cut early to avoid alkaloid buildup.
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Sowing rate: 50-70g/1000plants.
Planting: sow S. officinale in plugs or seedflats 12-14 weeks before sale. S. x uplandicum and ornamental varieties are propagated by division or root cutting.
Seeds to saleable plants: 12 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, aphid
Diseases: comfrey rust.
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Coriander, Cilantro
(Coriandrum sativum) |
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Market
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Products: (seed); (herb); (seed, herb);
Market size: 600,000 hectares (world), 5,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 110-150 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun (seed), full or half sun (fresh herb)
Soil: deep, fertile, light or heavy, well-drained, pH 6.5-7.5
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 25 kg/ha (seed), 80 kg/ha (fresh herb).
Planting: for seed and seed oil production, sow direct in spring. For fresh herb (cilantro) and herb oil production sow early spring and fall; will bolt in hot weather.
Field spacing: 50-60cm between rows x 11-13cm between plants (seed), 20-25cm between rows x 8-10cm (fresh herb).
Yield: seed 900-1,500kg/ha, fresh herb 10-12t/ha, oil 1-9kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: thrip
Diseases: asters yellow, erysiphe powdery mildew, puccinia rust, pseudamonas, and sclerotina.
Buyers want: less than 12% moisture.
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Sowing rate: 200g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots; do not transplant – root disturbance causes plants to bolt early.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: aphid, thrip, mite, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Dandelion
(Taraxacum officinale) |
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Market
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Products: (root, herb); (leaf)
Market size: 7,000 hectares (world); 500 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 1200-1900 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: most soils
Crop duration: 2 years (root), 1-4 years (fresh leaf)
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Sowing rate: 1-3kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring or late summer. Fresh leaf gathered as vegetable spring, summer and fall. Herb for drying harvested spring or summer. Roots dug late fall.
Field spacing: 45cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: dry root 1100-1700kg/ha (year 2).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: water-soluble extractive not less than 30%.
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Dill
(Anethum graveolens, A. sowa ) |
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Market
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Products: (seed, herb); (leaf); (leaf, seed);
Market size: 37,000 hectares (world), 4,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices same, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 400-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, moderately rich, loose soil, pH 5.5-6.5
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 9-12 kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in spring.
Field spacing: 25-50cm between rows; thin to 10cm within rows for fresh herb production or 2-3cm within rows for seed production.
Yield: seed 600-900kg/ha, fresh herb 2500-5000kg/ha, dried herb 1000kg/ha, oil 50-110kg/ha.
Pests: aphid, tarnished plant bug
Diseases: powdery mildew, leafspot, aster yellows.
Buyers want: good green colour (dried leaf).
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Sowing rate: 15-40g/1000pots.
Planting: do not transplant; sow direct in pots, 8-20 seeds per pot.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: aphid
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Echinacea
(Echinacea purpurea, E. angustifolia, E. pallida ) |
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Market
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Products: (root, herb, flower, seed); (herb);
Market size: 16,000 hectares (world), 4,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices down, acreage up; market for E. purpurea herb is weak.
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Culture |
Seed density: 160-500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained, pH 6-7.5
Crop duration: 3-4 years
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Sowing rate: 14-18 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: E. purpurea seeds do not require pretreatment. Can be started in plugs and transplanted to the field, which is the preferred method, or can be sown direct in the field. Sow E. purpurea 100-120 days before field planting; sow E. angustifolia and E. pallida 150 days before planting. E. angustifolia and E. pallida germination benefits from pretreatment; stratify at 5°C for 4-12 weeks with light. Pretreatment with Ethrel (1 millimolar for 2 weeks), or with bleach (1% for 10 min.) improves E. angustifolia germination.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 20-45cm within rows.
Yield: E. purpurea herb 6,500-11,000kg/ha (years 2-4); E. purpurea root 1000kg/ha (year 4); E. angustifolia root 1100kg/ha (year 4); no data for E. pallida root.
Pests: leafhopper
Diseases: aster yellows (spread by leafhoppers), sclerotinia stem and root rot, botrytis.
Buyers want: certificate of botanical identity required for E. angustifolia; echinacoside 1.4% (roots).
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Sowing rate: 10g/1000plants.
Planting: sow 14 weeks (E. purpurea) to 22 weeks (E. angustifolia, E. pallida) before sale. Stratify or pretreat E. angustifolia and E. pallida seed before sowing (see above).
Seeds to finished plugs: 8-12 weeks (after pretreatment).
Plugs to saleable plants: 6-10 weeks.
Pests: few problems, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Elecampane
(Inula helenium ) |
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Market
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Products: (root); (root);
Market size: 800 hectares (world), 25 ha (North America).
Prospects: prices same, volume same
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Culture |
Seed density: 600-800 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: moist, deep, well-drained
Crop duration: 2 years.
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Sowing rate: 400-600g/ha (direct); 5g/1000plants (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing not recommended. Start in plugs 8 weeks before spring or late summer field planting.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 45cm within rows.
Yield: 2500kg/ha (year 2).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: erysiphe powdery mildew (late summer), ramularia leafspot, puccinia rust.
Buyers want: not less than 1.8% volatile oil, not more than 6-8% ash, not less than 27% water-soluble extractive, not more than 2% foreign matter.
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Sowing rate: 5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs, seedflats or seed beds. Germination in 4-7 days.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 2-6 weeks.
Pests: spider mite, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Fennel
(Foeniculum vulgare) |
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Market
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Products: (seed); (leaf, bulb); (herb);
Market size: 70,000 hectares (world), 7,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 200-300 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, deep, moderately fertile, pH 7-8.
Crop duration: 2-3 years (florence fennel, 1 year)
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Sowing rate: 4-6kg/ha (direct), 30g/1000plants (indirect).
Planting: sow sweet fennel direct; bronze direct or indirect; florence indirect.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: seed 1000-1600kg/ha (years 2-3), fresh herb 8-10t/ha (year 1-3), dried herb 1.5-2.5t/ha (year 1-3), seed oil 40-75kg/ha.
Pests: aphid, lygus tarnished plant bug
Diseases: sclerotinia stemrot, rhizoctonia damping-off, erwinia soft rot.
Buyers want: not less than 2-4% volatile oil.
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Sowing rate: 30g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots or in plugs. Does not transplant well; best to sow direct.
Seeds to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3 weeks.
Pests: aphid
Diseases: damping-off.
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Fenugreek
(Trigonella foenum-graecum) |
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Market
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Products: (seeds, leaf, herb); (herb, sprouts); (seed)
Market size: 90,000 hectares (world), 7,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 100 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, warm soil
Crop duration: 1 year.
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Sowing rate: 25-35kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in spring. Broadcast or in close rows.
Field spacing: 20cm between rows x 10-20cm within rows.
Yield: seed 700-900kg/ha, dried forage 2-10t/ha.
Pests: no data
Diseases: no data.
Buyers want: swelling index not less than 6, foreign matter not more than 2-5%, ash not more than 5-6% (seed).
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Feverfew
(Tanacetum parthenium) |
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Market
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Products: (herb);
Market size: 1,300 hectares (world), 160 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume down
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Culture |
Seed density: 7,500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained, dry soil
Crop duration: 1-2 years
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Sowing rate: 1-1.5 kg/ha (direct); 0.5g/1000plants.
Planting: plugs preferred over direct sowing because seeds very small. Sow plugs 8 weeks before spring planting date. Don't allow to go to seed to avoid winterkill. Frequent fertilization with low nitrogen fertilizer is beneficial. Long days trigger flowering. Short lived perennial; some growers treat as annual.
Field spacing: 20-90cm between rows x 10-20cm within rows.
Yield: 300-5000kg/ha (years 1-2).
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: minimum 0.4-0.8% parthenolide.
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Sowing rate: 0.5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow 14-16 weeks before sales in flats or plug trays.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6-8 weeks.
Pests: aphid, whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
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Scented Geranium
(Pelargonium spp. ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (leaf);
Market size: 4,000 hectares (world), 400 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 360-450 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, neutral to alkaline
Crop duration: 1 year temperate areas, 3-5 year in tropical areas.d o Planting: all commercially important varieties are propagated by cuttings. Plugs planted in spring after last frost date. FieldSpacing: 60-100cm between rows x 20-50cm within rows. Yield: fresh leaf 13-30t/ha, oil 13-17kg/ha (years 1-5). PestsDiseases: aphid, caterpillar / alternaria leaf spot.
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Seeds/ |
Planting: all commercially important varieties are propagated by cuttings. Plugs planted in spring after last frost date.
Field spacing: 60-100cm between rows x 20-50cm within rows.
Yield: fresh leaf 13-30t/ha, oil 13-17kg/ha (years 1-5).
Pests: aphid, caterpillar
Diseases: alternaria leaf spot.
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Sowing rate: 30-80g/1000 plants.
Planting: commercial propagation is by cutting only.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6-8 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, geranium and peach aphid, mite, mealybug, scale
Diseases: various leaf spots including xanthomonas, alternaria, botrytis.
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Gingko
(Ginkgo biloba ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (seed);
Market size: 5,000 hectares (world), 600 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 1 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: rich, well-drained, moist soil
Crop duration: 20-50+ years
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Sowing rate: 2-4kg/hectare.
Planting: seeds require stratification, 1-2 months warm, then 1-2 months cold, then sow in spring. Common nursery practice is to sow without stratification in outdoor seed beds in fall. Seedlings shaded for 2-3 years and fertilized with manure. Seedlings transplanted to permanent location when 7-8 years old. Trees kept short (2m) and spaced close (2-3m) in commercial plantations for medicinal leaf production; otherwise allowed to grow higher and spaced further for seed production. Slow growing. Leaves harvested in early fall as they begin to turn yellow; dried in sun. Fruits harvested late fall, seeds cleaned and roasted.
Field spacing: 3-5m apart (2-3m within rows for leaf production).
Yield: no data (leaf years 8-50, seed years 20-50).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: tolerates pollution.
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Sowing rate: 2-4kg/1000 plants.
Planting: stratify seed warm (1-2 months) followed by cold (1-2 months). Sow in deep plugs. Keep lightly shaded.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks to 1 year.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8 weeks (10cm pots), 2-5 years (larger plants).
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Ginseng
(Panax quinquefolius, P. ginseng; Eleutherococcus senticosus) |
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Market
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Products: (root)
Market size: Panax 70,000 hectares (world), 7,400 ha (North America)
Prospects: Panax prices down, volume up. Prospects for woodsgrown Panax much better than shadecloth grown.
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Culture |
Seed density: Panax 15; Eleutherococcus 100 seeds/gram
Exposure: Panax 70% shade; Eleutherococcus 30-50% shade
Soil: well-drained, sandy or clay loam, in raised beds, pH 5.5-6.0
Crop duration: Panax 3-4 years (shadecloth), 4-8 years (woodsgrown); Eleutherococcus 6-12 years
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Sowing rate: 40-100 kg/ha (shadecloth), 10-20 kg/ha (woodsgrown).
Planting: Panax seeds stratified one year. Sow stratified seeds in seedbeds and transplant seedlings to raised beds in years 1-2, or sow direct in raised beds. Mulch with straw. Remove shadecloth over winter. Eleutherococcus seeds need at least cycles of warm-cold stratification; best results obtained when sown in flats in fall and left out over winter under mulch.
Field spacing: Panax 15-20cm between rows x 15-20cm within rows, further apart in woodsgrown plantings; Eleutherococcus 60-100cm apart.
Yield: Panax (shadecloth) 3400kg/ha (years 3-4).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: Panax alternaria leaf blight, rhizoctonia wilt, phytophthora, powdery mildew; Eleutherococcus few problems.
Buyers want: ginsenosides not less than 1.5-2%, ash not more than 4-8%.
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Sowing rate: Panax 150g/1000 plants; Eleutherococcus 250g/1000plants.
Planting: sow stratified Panax seeds in deep plugs, 2-4 seeds per plug, or sow in seed flats. Provide shade, keep cool and well ventilated.
Seeds to finished plugs: Panax 6 months (after stratification).
Plugs to saleable plants: Panax 1 year.
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: Panax alternaria, rhizoctonia.
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Goldenseal
(Hydrastis canadensis) |
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Market
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Products: (root);
Market size: 17,000 hectares (world), 7,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices down, volume up. Majority of market supplied by wildcrafted material, but wild stocks are becoming depleted and now listed on CITES.
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Culture |
Seed density: 50-55 seeds/gram
Exposure: 50-75% Shade
Soil: well-drained, deep, fertile soil, pH 5.5-6.5, in raised beds or on gentle slope.
Crop duration: 3-6 years
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Sowing rate: 10kg/ha (direct), 100g/1000 plants (indirect); rootlets 100,000/ha.
Planting: growers prefer rootlets over seeds because they are more reliable and quicker to harvestable size (3 years); however, seed quality has improved recently and cost of seeds is much less than rootlets. Seeds take 5-6 years to get harvestable roots. Seeds must not dry out; must be sown immediately after harvest in late summer to come up following spring. Avoid straw mulch and fertilize lightly.
Field spacing: 15-40cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: 900-2300kg/ha (year 3-6).
Pests: slugs
Diseases: alternaria, phytophthora, rhizoctonia, botrytis leafspot, fusarium.
Buyers want: min. alkaloids 3.5%.
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Sowing rate: seed 100g/1000plants, rootlets 300-1000/1000 plants.
Planting: for potted plant production, best to start with rootlets. Pot up rootlets 4 weeks before sale. Provide cool, shaded, and well-ventilated conditions; will not tolerate full sun and high humidity.
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: alternaria and other diseases common in potted plants in greenhouses.
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Lavender
(Lavandula angustifolia, L. x intermedia) |
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Market
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Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 9,000 hectares (world), 1,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 850-1300 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained, deep, not too rich, pH 6.5-7.5
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 3-6kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: lavandins (L. x intermedia; e.g. 'Provence' and 'Grosso'), best for commercial flower and oil production, are propagated vegetatively only. Only english types are available in seed form, but seed grown material may not be uniform enough for field production. Direct sowing not recommended; germination is too slow (15-30 days). Sow in seedflats 12-16 weeks before outdoor planting; transplant to plugs at 4-6 weeks, then transplant to field.
Field spacing: 60-120cm between rows x 25-120cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 500-1500kg/ha (years 2-5), oil 8-32kg/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: caterpillar, nematode
Diseases: phoma scab, septoria leaf spot, armillaria root rot.
Buyers want: 1.3% volatile oil or higher, good colour.
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Sowing rate: 5-10g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow 20-26 weeks before sale. Germination of english types (L. angustifolia) is frequently below 50%; scarification or freezing of seedflat can sometimes improve germination.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12-16 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8-10 weeks.
Pests: mealybug, whitefly, spider mite, scale
Diseases: few problems.
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Lemongrass
(Cymbopogon citratus, C. flexuosus) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (stem); (herb);
Market size: 50,000 hectares (world), 2,600 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: C. flexuosus 2000-2400 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, sandy loam, pH 5.5-6.5
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: C. flexuosus 5-10kg/ha (direct).
Planting: C. citratus grown from cuttings only. Sow C. flexuosus in spring. Heavy feeder. Oil quality of C. citratus highest at 18-24 months.
Field spacing: C. citratus 100cm between rows x 45cm within rows; broadcast C. flexuosus, or sow in rows 60-100cm apart.
Yield: C. citratus dry herb 4-6t/ha, oil 30-40kg/ha (years 1-5); C. flexuosus dry herb 10-15t/ha, 80kg/ha (years 1-5).
Pests: no data
Diseases: C. citratus himantia web blight, myriogenospora tangletop, helminthosperium eyespot, papularia.
Buyers want: high citral content.
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Sowing rate: 5g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow C. flexuosus in plugs 13-14 weeks before sale. C. citratus grown from cuttings only.
Seeds to finished plugs: 10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3-8 weeks.
Pests: spider mite, whitefly, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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Licorice
(Glycyrrhiza spp. ) |
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Market
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Products: (root);
Market size: 45,000 hectares (world), 480 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices down, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 400-600 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: deep, rich, moist, sandy, slightly alkaline, pH 7.3-7.8
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 3-4 kg/ha (direct), 5-10g/1000 plants (indirect).
Planting: soak seeds 2-3 hours in 30°C water or scarify before planting to weaken hard seed coat. Sow direct in spring or in deep plugs 12-16 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 70-90cm between rows x 45-90cm within rows.
Yield: G. glabra dry root 10-20t/ha (year 3-5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: uromyces rust, cercospora blight.
Buyers want: minimum 4% glycyrrhizinic acid, minimum 20% water soluble extractive.
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Sowing rate: 5-10g/1000plants.
Planting: soak seed in warm water (30°C) for 2-3 hours or scarify before sowing. Sow in flats or deep plugs 22-26 weeks before sale. Highly susceptible to damping-off; preventative application of damping-off control recommended.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12-16 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: damping-off.
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Lobelia
(Lobelia inflata ) |
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Market
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Products: (seed, herb);
Market size: 9,000 hectares (world), 1,700 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 30,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, rich soil
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 0.2-1kg/ha (direct), 0.1kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow in plugs or seedflats 12 weeks before field planting. Harvest herb when upper flowers are in bloom and lowest flowers have developed seed capsules when lobeline and lobelidine alkaloid content highest.
Field spacing: 30cm between rows x 15cm within rows.
Yield: dry herb 1100kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: wireworms
Diseases: cercospora, phyllosticta and septoria leaf spots.
Buyers want: no data.
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Sowing rate: 0.5g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow in plugs 14 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4-6 weeks.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
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| |
Marjoram
(Origanum majorana) |
|
Market
|
Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 12,000 hectares (world), 800 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 3,500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, pH 6.5-7.5
Crop duration: 1 year (2-3 years in zone 9+)
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|
Sowing rate: 5-6kg/ha (direct), 0.2-0.3kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: requires warmth to do well; germinates best above 15°C daytime and 10°C nighttime. Sow direct in warmer zones; or sow indirect in plugs 12 weeks before field planting in cooler zones.
Field spacing: 30-40cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: 2.5-3t/ha (years 1-3).
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: botrytis gray mold, alternaria, puccinia rust, septoria.
Buyers want: no data.
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|
|
Sowing rate: 1g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or direct in pots 6-8 weeks before sale. Minimum 15°C days, 10°C nights.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 2-4 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite, thrip
Diseases: few problems.
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| |
Chinese Milkvetch, Astragalus
(Astragalus membranaceus) |
|
Market
|
Products: (root);
Market size: 1,700 hectares (world), 560 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 130-160 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, deep, moist, alkaline
Crop duration: 4-5 years
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 6-8 kg/ha (direct), 3-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: can be started in deep plugs, but suffers transplant shock easily. Probably better to sow direct in field, in early spring or fall. Scarification helps speed germination. Harvested in fall, lateral roots trimmed, dried partially and then sliced 0.5 cm thick, and then further dried.
Field spacing: 75-100cm between rows x 25cm within rows.
Yield: 7000kg/ha (year 4-5).
Pests: no data
Diseases: unidentified root rot when in wet conditions.
Buyers want: no data.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 75g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow in deep plugs 19-20 weeks before sale; transplant before plugs are root-bound. Highly susceptible to mites.
Seeds to finished plugs: 10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 9 weeks.
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: damping-off.
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| |
Mint
(Mentha spp.) |
|
Market
|
Products: (leaf, herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 240,000 hectares (world), 16,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 17,000-20,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: rich, moist, well-drained, pH 6.5-7
Crop duration: 2-3 years
|
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|
Sowing rate: 1 kg/ha (direct), 0.1-0.2kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: commercial plantings propagated vegetatively; seed not suitable because of poor oil quality. Root cuttings planted in early spring or fall. Fields must be rotated every 2-3 years to prevent disease buildup.
Field spacing: 40-90cm between rows x 15-45cm within rows.
Yield: peppermint herb oil 35-125kg/ha, fresh herb 10-25t/ha, dried herb 1-3t/ha (years 2-3).
Pests: nematode, aphid
Diseases: puccinia rust, verticillum wilt, leaf spot, sphaceloma spot anthracnose.
Buyers want: peppermint minimum 1-1.2% volatile oil, not more than 10% leaves spotted with puccinia rust, not more than 5% stems, 2% foreign matter or 11% water.
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|
|
Sowing rate: 0.5-1g/1000 plants.
Planting: most cultivars grown from cuttings. Seed material not recommended for pot plant sales.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite, aphid, mealybug
Diseases: rust.
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| |
Nettle
(Urtica dioica ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (herb, root, leaf, seed);
Market size: 1,600 hectares (world), 240 ha (North America)
Prospects: Prices stable, volume stable
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 6,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun or part shade
Soil: rich, moist, pH 6-7
Crop duration: 3-5 years
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 5kg/ha (direct), 0.6kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow in plugs 12 weeks before field planting, or direct in spring.
Field spacing: 30cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: 1000-2000kg/ha (years 3-5).
Pests: no data
Diseases: no data.
Buyers want: maximum 10% stems, 2% other foreign matter, total ash 20%, acid-insoluble ash 4%.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 2g/1000 plants (indirect).
Planting: sow in plugs 18 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: spider mite, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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| |
Oregano
(Origanum spp. ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 8,000 hectares (world), 2,400 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up Varieties: most oregano is wildcrafted in Europe. In North America, much of the oregano is Lippia graveolens, the mexican variety.
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 3800-4500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, sandy, dry, pH 6-8
Crop duration: 3-5 years
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 2.5-3kg/ha (direct), 0.2-0.5kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: greek variety is best for commercial fresh and dry herb and oil production. Sow direct in spring when soil temperature is at least 15°C, or sow in plugs 6 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 30-40cm between rows x 7-15cm within rows.
Yield: dry herb 1000-3000kg/ha, fresh herb 10-20t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: unspecified fungal diseases can occur in wet weather.
Buyers want: strong scent, good green colour.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 0.5-1g/1000 plants.
Planting: most varieties cannot be grown from seeds; only greek variety is raised from seed commercially. Sow in plugs 12 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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| |
Parsley
(Petroselinum crispum) |
|
Market
|
Products: (leaf); (leaf, root);
Market size: 250,000 hectares (world), 25,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 650-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: tolerates most soils, but rich, well-drained, moist, pH 6-7 is best
Crop duration: 1 year
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|
|
Sowing rate: 3-7 kg/ha (direct), 0.5-1.5kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field early spring or fall in warmer zones. Two or three cuts are possible.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 10-20cm within rows.
Yield: fresh herb 5-10t/ha, dry herb 1-2t/ha (year 1).
Pests: carrot root fly
Diseases: septoria and alternaria leaf spot.
Buyers want: good green colour (dry and fresh herb).
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|
|
Sowing rate: 2-4g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or direct in pots. Sow 4-5 seeds per plug or 12 per pot.
Seeds to saleable plants: 12 weeks.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite, aphid
Diseases: few problems.
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|
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| |
Chile Pepper
(Capsicum annuum, C. spp.) |
|
Market
|
Products: (fruit); (fruit);
Market size: 100,000 hectares (world), 10,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 80-250 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained, loam, pH 6.5-7.5
Crop duration: 1 year
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 10kg/ha (direct), 0.5-1kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: should not follow in soils where pepper, eggplant, tobacco, potato, tomato and other Solanaceae were grown previously. Needs 21-30°C to do well. Minimum 16°C soil temperature required for germination In cooler temperate zones. Sow in flats or plugs 8-12 weeks before spring field planting. In warmer zones (e.g. southern U.S.), can be sown direct in field. Cultivation similar to bell peppers, except longer, warmer season required (65-80 days). Easily killed by frost. Excess nitrogen feeding will reduce fruit production. Irrigation necessary in drier areas; can improve yields 6-fold.
Field spacing: 90-130cm between rows x 30-60cm within rows.
Yield: fresh fruit 8-15t/ha, dry fruit 2t/ha (year 1).
Pests: aphid, ground beetle, pepper weevil
Diseases: xanthomonas bacterial spot, anthracnose, and many others.
Buyers want: varies greatly depending on the market.
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|
|
Sowing rate: 10-25g/1000plants.
Planting: sow 10-12 weeks before sale. Sow in flats or plugs. Mostly sold in 4- or 6-packs in spring like bedding annuals, or in pots.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite, aphid
Diseases: few problems.
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| |
Rosemary
(Rosmarinus officinalis ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (leaf); (leaf); (herb);
Market size: Most commercial product is from wildcrafted sources. Cultivated acreage is 200 hectares (North America); world acreage unknown
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained; pH 6.0-7.5
Crop duration: 10-20 years
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 1.5-3 kg/ha (direct), 0.2-0.6kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing not recommended because seeds are slow to germinate and seedlings are slow to establish. Sow in seedflats 20 weeks before field spring planting. Germination can be enhanced by exposing seedflat to 24-27°C for 1 week and then lower to 18°C for germination. Where rosemary is not hardy growers dig up plants and overwinter in cool greenhouses. Named cultivars must be grown from cuttings; seed only available for standard species.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 25-50cm within rows.
Yield: fresh herb 2000kg/ha (years 2-20).
Pests: no data
Diseases: root rot.
Buyers want: dried leaf minimum volatile oil 1.2%, maximum foreign matter 10%, maximum woody stems 2%, maximum ash 7%.
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|
|
Sowing rate: 10-15g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow in seedflats 22 weeks before sale in 10cm pots.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, scale, mealybug
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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| |
Alfalfa
(Medicago sativa ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (seeds, leaf, herb); (herb, sprouts)
Market size: (excluding acreage planted for fodder): 12,000 hectares (world); 5,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices and acreage up
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|
Culture |
Seed density: 350 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained; pH 6.0-7.5
Crop duration: 1-4 years
|
|
(herb) |
Sowing rate: 9-13kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring, broadcast or sow in rows, 15-30cm apart. Two or more cuts at bud stage possible; last cut 6 weeks before killing frost. Heavy potash and phosphorus feeder.
Yield: dry herb 8-10,000kg/ha (years 1-4).
Pests: weevil, leafminer, leafhopper, snout beetle
Diseases: verticillium wilt, leafspot, phytophthora root rot.
Buyers want: organic product.
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|
(sprouts) |
Planting: soak seeds overnight; drain, keep moist. Ready in 3-5 days.
Yield: 4kg(sprouts)/kg(seeds).
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| |
Arnica
(A. montana, A. chamissonis) |
|
Market
|
Products: (flower, root); (flower);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 160 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume down
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 700-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, humus-rich, pH 7 (A. chamissonis), pH 4.5-6 (A. montana)
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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|
|
Sowing rate: 1-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing not recommended. Sow in seedflats or plugs. Sow A. montana 16-20 weeks before transplanting to field; sow A. chamissonis 12 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 15-60cm between rows x 15-20cm within rows.
Harvest: flower (years 2-5), root (year 3 or 4).
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: chlorosis (yellow leaves) in A. montana caused by alkaline soil.
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|
|
Sowing rate: 8-10g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in seedflats or plugs 20 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8 weeks.
Pests: few problems, whitefly occasionally
Diseases: few problems.
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|
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| |
Lemon Balm
(Melissa officinalis) |
|
Market
|
Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 75 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 2000 seeds/gram
Exposure: sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained clay or sandy loam, pH 6 to 7.5
Crop duration: 2-4 years
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 7-9kg/ha (direct), 250-400g/ha (indirect, in plugs).
Planting: sowing in plugs in greenhouse in early spring till mid-summer is most common method; sow 6-8 weeks before transplanting to field. Direct sowing is not as common because weed control is more difficult; sow in early spring or late fall (to come up next spring).
Field spacing: 50-75cm between rows x 18-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry herb 5000kg/ha, fresh herb 10-25t/ha (years 1-3).
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: erisyphe powdery mildew, septoria blight, puccinia rust.
Buyers want: dry carefully to conserve oil in dried herb.
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|
|
Sowing rate: 3-5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in flats or plugs 11-14 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spidermite, thrip
Diseases: mildew.
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| |
Basil
(Ocimum basilicum, and others ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (leaf, herb); (herb); (oil);
Market size: 10,000 hectares (world), 1,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 500-1000 (O. gratissimum 2600, O. kilamandscharicum 2800, O. sanctum 1500-2500) seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: rich, well-drained
Crop duration: 1 year (O. basilicum), 1-3 years (others)
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|
|
Sowing rate: 20kg/ha (direct); 3-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in spring when nighttime temperatures exceed 10°C; or sow in flats or plugs 8 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 15-25cm within rows.
Yield: fresh herb 15,000kg/ha, dry herb 1,500-2,000kg/ha, oil 30kg/ha (year 1)
Pests: aphids, thrips
Diseases: O. basilicum varieties are highly susceptible to fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum) disease. Disease persists in soil for several years. Commercial field plantings should be sown with fusarium-tolerant Nufar F1. Hydroponic operations may choose fusarium-free varieties if equipment and facilities are free of fusarium (spreads by contaminated seeds and equipment). Other basil species (e.g. O. americanum and O. gratissimum) are fusarium-tolerant.
Buyers want: not less than 0.4% essential oil in dried product.
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|
|
Sowing rate: 3-4g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in final pots, or in plugs and later transplant to final pots. Nighttime temperature must not go below 10°C.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, thrips, aphids
Diseases: fusarium (see above).
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| |
Bay Laurel
(Laurus nobilis ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (leaf); (leaf);
Market size: 2,000 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 1 seeds/gram
Exposure: sheltered position in full or half sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, moist
Crop duration: 20-50 years
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|
|
Sowing rate: 30-60kg/ha
Planting: sow stratified seeds in beds or flats.
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: leaves dried flat for visual appearance.
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|
|
Sowing rate: 5kg/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or flats in March or April.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks (after stratification).
Plugs to saleable plants: 10 weeks to a year.
Pests: whitefly, scale, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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| |
Borage
(Borago officinalis ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (seed, herb, flower, root); (herb, flower, root), (seed);
Market size: 5,000 hectares (world); 2,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, acreage up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 50 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: best in well-drained, fertile, moist soil, but tolerates most soils, pH 5-8
Crop duration: 1 year
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|
|
Sowing rate: 5-17 kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in late spring in rows 45-90cm apart, 30-45cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 300kg/ha; fresh flower 1,000-5,000kg/ha; seed 90-450kg/ha.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: 24% gamma lineolenic acid content in seed oil.
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|
|
Sowing rate: 50-80g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots or plugs.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
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| |
Burdock
(Arctium lappa) |
|
Market
|
Products: (root, leaf); (root);
Market size: 3,000 hectares (world), 170 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 60-110 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or part sun
Soil: deep, loose, humus-rich, pH 6-8
Crop duration: 1-2 years
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 4 kg/ha (direct), 1.5kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring. Or, sow in beds or plugs and transplant to field in spring. For use as fresh vegetable, dig first year roots when young and tender at 3-5 months. For dry root production, dig in fall of second year.
Field spacing: 45-90cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry root 2,000kg/ha (years 2 or 3).
Pests: few problems, grasshopper
Diseases: few problems.
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|
|
Sowing rate: 20g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs 9-10 weeks before sale.
Seeds to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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| |
Calendula
(C. officinalis) |
|
Market
|
Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 880 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 150 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained; can tolerate poor soil with low nitrogen.
Crop duration: 1 year
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 3-9kg/ha (direct), 1kg/ha (indirect in plugs).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring or autumn; or sow in plugs 4-6 weeks before field planting. Seeds need light to germinate; cover seeds lightly or press in soil only.
Field spacing: 20-70cm between rows x 10-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 1-2,000kg/ha, fresh flower 6-9,000kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: blister-beetle, cabbage-looper, caterpillar, leafhopper
Diseases: leaf spot, aster-yellows.
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|
|
Sowing rate: 15g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or direct in pots 10-12 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 4-6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, aphid, thrip, mealybug
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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| |
Caraway
(Carum carvi) |
|
Market
|
Products: (seed); (seed)
Market size: 19,000 hectares (world), 2,500 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 350-400 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, pH 6-7.8.
Crop duration: 1-2 years (depending on variety)
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 8-11 kg/ha.
Planting: sow standard biennial type direct in field late June or early July; harvest following year in August. Sow annual type in May (suited for warmer regions with 5-6 frost-free months). Sometimes sown with annual cover crops such as coriander, dill, mustard the first year.
Field spacing: 10-50cm between rows x 4-15cm within rows.
Yield: seed 600-3,000kg/ha, oil 4.5-7kg/ha (year 1 or 2, depending on variety).
Pests: leafhopper
Diseases: aster yellows.
Buyers want: seed minimum 3% oil, maximum 12% moisture.
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|
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| |
Catnip
(Nepeta cataria ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (herb, leaf);
Market size: 2,400 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 1500-1600 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or partial sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, sandy, pH 6.5
Crop duration: 2-5 years
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 12 kg/ha (direct), 1kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring or late fall. Or, sow in plugs 8-10 weeks before field planting. Seed needs light to germinate; sow shallow 2-4mm deep.
Field spacing: 45-90cm between rows x 30-40cm within rows.
Harvest: leaf, herb (years 2-5).
Yield: dry herb 3-6t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 3g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or seedflats 12-15 weeks before sale. Sow 2-4mm deep.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8-10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3-5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
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|
|
|
| |
Chamomile
(Matricaria recutita, Chamaemelum nobile ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 40,000 hectares (world), 4,800 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 10,000-18,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained, moist to dry
Crop duration: 1 year (M. recutita), 2-3 years (C. nobile)
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|
|
Sowing rate: 3-4 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect)
Planting: german (M. recutita) is sown direct in field in spring or fall. Fall sowings germinate following spring. Roman (C. nobile) is sown direct or indirect in plugs which are later planted in field. Surface sow only (needs light to germinate). Hand harvesting flowers problematic in areas where labour cost is high; mechanical harvesting still unproven.
Field spacing: 10-50cm between rows x 10-25cm within rows, or broadcast sown.
Yield: dry flower 350-500kg/ha (M. recutita; year 1), 600-1000 kg/ha (C. nobile; years 1-3).
Pests: cnephasia moth
Diseases: aster yellows.
Buyers want: 0.4% or more volatile oil.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 1g/1000plants.
Planting: german (M. recutita) not normally sold in pots; roman (C. nobile) and its varieties are sold in pots or plugs. Seeds need light to germinate; surface sow only.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4-6 weeks.
Pests: aphid, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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|
|
|
| |
Chives
(Allium schoenoprasum, A. tuberosum ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (leaf, flower); (leaf, flower);
Market size: 24,000 hectares (world), 3,200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 750 (A. schoenoprasum), 200-300 (A. tuberosum) seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, humus-rich
Crop duration: 3-5 years
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 2-3 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring, or sow indirect in plugs 12-16 weeks before field planting. Field must be free of quackgrass otherwise harvests will be contaminated.
Field spacing: 30cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: fresh leaf 10-20t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: aphid
Diseases: puccinia rust, downy mildew.
Buyers want: good green colour (dry leaf).
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 5-20g/1000plants (A. schoenoprasum), 50g/1000plants (A. tuberosum)
Planting: sow 10-15 seeds per plug or pot, or sow same amount direct in pots.
Seeds to saleable plants: 24-30 weeks.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12-16 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 11 weeks.
Pests: aphid, thrip
Diseases: few problems.
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Comfrey
(Symphytum officinale, S. x uplandicum) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf, root); (root, herb);
Market size: 1,700 hectares (world), 240 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 90-100 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or part sun
Soil: moist, wet or dry
Crop duration: 2-5 years
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Sowing rate: 600-900g/ha (indirect).
Planting: although seed can be sown direct, the high cost of seed dictates indirect sowing in plugs or seedbed and transplanting to field. Root cuttings (12,000/ha) of named cultivars (e.g. Bocking No. 14) recommended over seed.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 90cm within rows.
Yield: dry leaf 12t/ha (years 2-5), dry root 1,800kg/ha (year 3, 4 or 5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: comfrey rust.
Buyers want: low pyrrolizidine alkaloid content, particularly echimidine; leaf should be cut early to avoid alkaloid buildup.
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Sowing rate: 50-70g/1000plants.
Planting: sow S. officinale in plugs or seedflats 12-14 weeks before sale. S. x uplandicum and ornamental varieties are propagated by division or root cutting.
Seeds to saleable plants: 12 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, aphid
Diseases: comfrey rust.
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Coriander, Cilantro
(Coriandrum sativum) |
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Market
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Products: (seed); (herb); (seed, herb);
Market size: 600,000 hectares (world), 5,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 110-150 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun (seed), full or half sun (fresh herb)
Soil: deep, fertile, light or heavy, well-drained, pH 6.5-7.5
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 25 kg/ha (seed), 80 kg/ha (fresh herb).
Planting: for seed and seed oil production, sow direct in spring. For fresh herb (cilantro) and herb oil production sow early spring and fall; will bolt in hot weather.
Field spacing: 50-60cm between rows x 11-13cm between plants (seed), 20-25cm between rows x 8-10cm (fresh herb).
Yield: seed 900-1,500kg/ha, fresh herb 10-12t/ha, oil 1-9kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: thrip
Diseases: asters yellow, erysiphe powdery mildew, puccinia rust, pseudamonas, and sclerotina.
Buyers want: less than 12% moisture.
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Sowing rate: 200g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots; do not transplant – root disturbance causes plants to bolt early.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: aphid, thrip, mite, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Dandelion
(Taraxacum officinale) |
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Market
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Products: (root, herb); (leaf)
Market size: 7,000 hectares (world); 500 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 1200-1900 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: most soils
Crop duration: 2 years (root), 1-4 years (fresh leaf)
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Sowing rate: 1-3kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring or late summer. Fresh leaf gathered as vegetable spring, summer and fall. Herb for drying harvested spring or summer. Roots dug late fall.
Field spacing: 45cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: dry root 1100-1700kg/ha (year 2).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: water-soluble extractive not less than 30%.
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Dill
(Anethum graveolens, A. sowa ) |
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Market
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Products: (seed, herb); (leaf); (leaf, seed);
Market size: 37,000 hectares (world), 4,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices same, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 400-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, moderately rich, loose soil, pH 5.5-6.5
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 9-12 kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in spring.
Field spacing: 25-50cm between rows; thin to 10cm within rows for fresh herb production or 2-3cm within rows for seed production.
Yield: seed 600-900kg/ha, fresh herb 2500-5000kg/ha, dried herb 1000kg/ha, oil 50-110kg/ha.
Pests: aphid, tarnished plant bug
Diseases: powdery mildew, leafspot, aster yellows.
Buyers want: good green colour (dried leaf).
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Sowing rate: 15-40g/1000pots.
Planting: do not transplant; sow direct in pots, 8-20 seeds per pot.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: aphid
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Echinacea
(Echinacea purpurea, E. angustifolia, E. pallida ) |
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Market
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Products: (root, herb, flower, seed); (herb);
Market size: 16,000 hectares (world), 4,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices down, acreage up; market for E. purpurea herb is weak.
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Culture |
Seed density: 160-500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained, pH 6-7.5
Crop duration: 3-4 years
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Sowing rate: 14-18 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: E. purpurea seeds do not require pretreatment. Can be started in plugs and transplanted to the field, which is the preferred method, or can be sown direct in the field. Sow E. purpurea 100-120 days before field planting; sow E. angustifolia and E. pallida 150 days before planting. E. angustifolia and E. pallida germination benefits from pretreatment; stratify at 5°C for 4-12 weeks with light. Pretreatment with Ethrel (1 millimolar for 2 weeks), or with bleach (1% for 10 min.) improves E. angustifolia germination.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 20-45cm within rows.
Yield: E. purpurea herb 6,500-11,000kg/ha (years 2-4); E. purpurea root 1000kg/ha (year 4); E. angustifolia root 1100kg/ha (year 4); no data for E. pallida root.
Pests: leafhopper
Diseases: aster yellows (spread by leafhoppers), sclerotinia stem and root rot, botrytis.
Buyers want: certificate of botanical identity required for E. angustifolia; echinacoside 1.4% (roots).
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Sowing rate: 10g/1000plants.
Planting: sow 14 weeks (E. purpurea) to 22 weeks (E. angustifolia, E. pallida) before sale. Stratify or pretreat E. angustifolia and E. pallida seed before sowing (see above).
Seeds to finished plugs: 8-12 weeks (after pretreatment).
Plugs to saleable plants: 6-10 weeks.
Pests: few problems, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Elecampane
(Inula helenium ) |
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Market
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Products: (root); (root);
Market size: 800 hectares (world), 25 ha (North America).
Prospects: prices same, volume same
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Culture |
Seed density: 600-800 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: moist, deep, well-drained
Crop duration: 2 years.
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Sowing rate: 400-600g/ha (direct); 5g/1000plants (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing not recommended. Start in plugs 8 weeks before spring or late summer field planting.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 45cm within rows.
Yield: 2500kg/ha (year 2).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: erysiphe powdery mildew (late summer), ramularia leafspot, puccinia rust.
Buyers want: not less than 1.8% volatile oil, not more than 6-8% ash, not less than 27% water-soluble extractive, not more than 2% foreign matter.
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Sowing rate: 5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs, seedflats or seed beds. Germination in 4-7 days.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 2-6 weeks.
Pests: spider mite, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Fennel
(Foeniculum vulgare) |
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Market
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Products: (seed); (leaf, bulb); (herb);
Market size: 70,000 hectares (world), 7,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 200-300 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, deep, moderately fertile, pH 7-8.
Crop duration: 2-3 years (florence fennel, 1 year)
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Sowing rate: 4-6kg/ha (direct), 30g/1000plants (indirect).
Planting: sow sweet fennel direct; bronze direct or indirect; florence indirect.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: seed 1000-1600kg/ha (years 2-3), fresh herb 8-10t/ha (year 1-3), dried herb 1.5-2.5t/ha (year 1-3), seed oil 40-75kg/ha.
Pests: aphid, lygus tarnished plant bug
Diseases: sclerotinia stemrot, rhizoctonia damping-off, erwinia soft rot.
Buyers want: not less than 2-4% volatile oil.
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Sowing rate: 30g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots or in plugs. Does not transplant well; best to sow direct.
Seeds to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3 weeks.
Pests: aphid
Diseases: damping-off.
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Fenugreek
(Trigonella foenum-graecum) |
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Market
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Products: (seeds, leaf, herb); (herb, sprouts); (seed)
Market size: 90,000 hectares (world), 7,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 100 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, warm soil
Crop duration: 1 year.
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Sowing rate: 25-35kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in spring. Broadcast or in close rows.
Field spacing: 20cm between rows x 10-20cm within rows.
Yield: seed 700-900kg/ha, dried forage 2-10t/ha.
Pests: no data
Diseases: no data.
Buyers want: swelling index not less than 6, foreign matter not more than 2-5%, ash not more than 5-6% (seed).
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Feverfew
(Tanacetum parthenium) |
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Market
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Products: (herb);
Market size: 1,300 hectares (world), 160 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume down
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Culture |
Seed density: 7,500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained, dry soil
Crop duration: 1-2 years
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Sowing rate: 1-1.5 kg/ha (direct); 0.5g/1000plants.
Planting: plugs preferred over direct sowing because seeds very small. Sow plugs 8 weeks before spring planting date. Don't allow to go to seed to avoid winterkill. Frequent fertilization with low nitrogen fertilizer is beneficial. Long days trigger flowering. Short lived perennial; some growers treat as annual.
Field spacing: 20-90cm between rows x 10-20cm within rows.
Yield: 300-5000kg/ha (years 1-2).
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: minimum 0.4-0.8% parthenolide.
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Sowing rate: 0.5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow 14-16 weeks before sales in flats or plug trays.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6-8 weeks.
Pests: aphid, whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
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Scented Geranium
(Pelargonium spp. ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (leaf);
Market size: 4,000 hectares (world), 400 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 360-450 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, neutral to alkaline
Crop duration: 1 year temperate areas, 3-5 year in tropical areas.d o Planting: all commercially important varieties are propagated by cuttings. Plugs planted in spring after last frost date. FieldSpacing: 60-100cm between rows x 20-50cm within rows. Yield: fresh leaf 13-30t/ha, oil 13-17kg/ha (years 1-5). PestsDiseases: aphid, caterpillar / alternaria leaf spot.
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Seeds/ |
Planting: all commercially important varieties are propagated by cuttings. Plugs planted in spring after last frost date.
Field spacing: 60-100cm between rows x 20-50cm within rows.
Yield: fresh leaf 13-30t/ha, oil 13-17kg/ha (years 1-5).
Pests: aphid, caterpillar
Diseases: alternaria leaf spot.
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Sowing rate: 30-80g/1000 plants.
Planting: commercial propagation is by cutting only.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6-8 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, geranium and peach aphid, mite, mealybug, scale
Diseases: various leaf spots including xanthomonas, alternaria, botrytis.
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Gingko
(Ginkgo biloba ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (seed);
Market size: 5,000 hectares (world), 600 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 1 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: rich, well-drained, moist soil
Crop duration: 20-50+ years
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Sowing rate: 2-4kg/hectare.
Planting: seeds require stratification, 1-2 months warm, then 1-2 months cold, then sow in spring. Common nursery practice is to sow without stratification in outdoor seed beds in fall. Seedlings shaded for 2-3 years and fertilized with manure. Seedlings transplanted to permanent location when 7-8 years old. Trees kept short (2m) and spaced close (2-3m) in commercial plantations for medicinal leaf production; otherwise allowed to grow higher and spaced further for seed production. Slow growing. Leaves harvested in early fall as they begin to turn yellow; dried in sun. Fruits harvested late fall, seeds cleaned and roasted.
Field spacing: 3-5m apart (2-3m within rows for leaf production).
Yield: no data (leaf years 8-50, seed years 20-50).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: tolerates pollution.
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Sowing rate: 2-4kg/1000 plants.
Planting: stratify seed warm (1-2 months) followed by cold (1-2 months). Sow in deep plugs. Keep lightly shaded.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks to 1 year.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8 weeks (10cm pots), 2-5 years (larger plants).
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Ginseng
(Panax quinquefolius, P. ginseng; Eleutherococcus senticosus) |
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Market
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Products: (root)
Market size: Panax 70,000 hectares (world), 7,400 ha (North America)
Prospects: Panax prices down, volume up. Prospects for woodsgrown Panax much better than shadecloth grown.
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Culture |
Seed density: Panax 15; Eleutherococcus 100 seeds/gram
Exposure: Panax 70% shade; Eleutherococcus 30-50% shade
Soil: well-drained, sandy or clay loam, in raised beds, pH 5.5-6.0
Crop duration: Panax 3-4 years (shadecloth), 4-8 years (woodsgrown); Eleutherococcus 6-12 years
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Sowing rate: 40-100 kg/ha (shadecloth), 10-20 kg/ha (woodsgrown).
Planting: Panax seeds stratified one year. Sow stratified seeds in seedbeds and transplant seedlings to raised beds in years 1-2, or sow direct in raised beds. Mulch with straw. Remove shadecloth over winter. Eleutherococcus seeds need at least cycles of warm-cold stratification; best results obtained when sown in flats in fall and left out over winter under mulch.
Field spacing: Panax 15-20cm between rows x 15-20cm within rows, further apart in woodsgrown plantings; Eleutherococcus 60-100cm apart.
Yield: Panax (shadecloth) 3400kg/ha (years 3-4).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: Panax alternaria leaf blight, rhizoctonia wilt, phytophthora, powdery mildew; Eleutherococcus few problems.
Buyers want: ginsenosides not less than 1.5-2%, ash not more than 4-8%.
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Sowing rate: Panax 150g/1000 plants; Eleutherococcus 250g/1000plants.
Planting: sow stratified Panax seeds in deep plugs, 2-4 seeds per plug, or sow in seed flats. Provide shade, keep cool and well ventilated.
Seeds to finished plugs: Panax 6 months (after stratification).
Plugs to saleable plants: Panax 1 year.
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: Panax alternaria, rhizoctonia.
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Goldenseal
(Hydrastis canadensis) |
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Market
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Products: (root);
Market size: 17,000 hectares (world), 7,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices down, volume up. Majority of market supplied by wildcrafted material, but wild stocks are becoming depleted and now listed on CITES.
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Culture |
Seed density: 50-55 seeds/gram
Exposure: 50-75% Shade
Soil: well-drained, deep, fertile soil, pH 5.5-6.5, in raised beds or on gentle slope.
Crop duration: 3-6 years
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Sowing rate: 10kg/ha (direct), 100g/1000 plants (indirect); rootlets 100,000/ha.
Planting: growers prefer rootlets over seeds because they are more reliable and quicker to harvestable size (3 years); however, seed quality has improved recently and cost of seeds is much less than rootlets. Seeds take 5-6 years to get harvestable roots. Seeds must not dry out; must be sown immediately after harvest in late summer to come up following spring. Avoid straw mulch and fertilize lightly.
Field spacing: 15-40cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: 900-2300kg/ha (year 3-6).
Pests: slugs
Diseases: alternaria, phytophthora, rhizoctonia, botrytis leafspot, fusarium.
Buyers want: min. alkaloids 3.5%.
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Sowing rate: seed 100g/1000plants, rootlets 300-1000/1000 plants.
Planting: for potted plant production, best to start with rootlets. Pot up rootlets 4 weeks before sale. Provide cool, shaded, and well-ventilated conditions; will not tolerate full sun and high humidity.
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: alternaria and other diseases common in potted plants in greenhouses.
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Lavender
(Lavandula angustifolia, L. x intermedia) |
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Market
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Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 9,000 hectares (world), 1,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 850-1300 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained, deep, not too rich, pH 6.5-7.5
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 3-6kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: lavandins (L. x intermedia; e.g. 'Provence' and 'Grosso'), best for commercial flower and oil production, are propagated vegetatively only. Only english types are available in seed form, but seed grown material may not be uniform enough for field production. Direct sowing not recommended; germination is too slow (15-30 days). Sow in seedflats 12-16 weeks before outdoor planting; transplant to plugs at 4-6 weeks, then transplant to field.
Field spacing: 60-120cm between rows x 25-120cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 500-1500kg/ha (years 2-5), oil 8-32kg/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: caterpillar, nematode
Diseases: phoma scab, septoria leaf spot, armillaria root rot.
Buyers want: 1.3% volatile oil or higher, good colour.
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Sowing rate: 5-10g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow 20-26 weeks before sale. Germination of english types (L. angustifolia) is frequently below 50%; scarification or freezing of seedflat can sometimes improve germination.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12-16 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8-10 weeks.
Pests: mealybug, whitefly, spider mite, scale
Diseases: few problems.
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Lemongrass
(Cymbopogon citratus, C. flexuosus) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (stem); (herb);
Market size: 50,000 hectares (world), 2,600 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: C. flexuosus 2000-2400 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, sandy loam, pH 5.5-6.5
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: C. flexuosus 5-10kg/ha (direct).
Planting: C. citratus grown from cuttings only. Sow C. flexuosus in spring. Heavy feeder. Oil quality of C. citratus highest at 18-24 months.
Field spacing: C. citratus 100cm between rows x 45cm within rows; broadcast C. flexuosus, or sow in rows 60-100cm apart.
Yield: C. citratus dry herb 4-6t/ha, oil 30-40kg/ha (years 1-5); C. flexuosus dry herb 10-15t/ha, 80kg/ha (years 1-5).
Pests: no data
Diseases: C. citratus himantia web blight, myriogenospora tangletop, helminthosperium eyespot, papularia.
Buyers want: high citral content.
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Sowing rate: 5g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow C. flexuosus in plugs 13-14 weeks before sale. C. citratus grown from cuttings only.
Seeds to finished plugs: 10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3-8 weeks.
Pests: spider mite, whitefly, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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Licorice
(Glycyrrhiza spp. ) |
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Market
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Products: (root);
Market size: 45,000 hectares (world), 480 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices down, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 400-600 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: deep, rich, moist, sandy, slightly alkaline, pH 7.3-7.8
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 3-4 kg/ha (direct), 5-10g/1000 plants (indirect).
Planting: soak seeds 2-3 hours in 30°C water or scarify before planting to weaken hard seed coat. Sow direct in spring or in deep plugs 12-16 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 70-90cm between rows x 45-90cm within rows.
Yield: G. glabra dry root 10-20t/ha (year 3-5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: uromyces rust, cercospora blight.
Buyers want: minimum 4% glycyrrhizinic acid, minimum 20% water soluble extractive.
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Sowing rate: 5-10g/1000plants.
Planting: soak seed in warm water (30°C) for 2-3 hours or scarify before sowing. Sow in flats or deep plugs 22-26 weeks before sale. Highly susceptible to damping-off; preventative application of damping-off control recommended.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12-16 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: damping-off.
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Lobelia
(Lobelia inflata ) |
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Market
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Products: (seed, herb);
Market size: 9,000 hectares (world), 1,700 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 30,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, rich soil
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 0.2-1kg/ha (direct), 0.1kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow in plugs or seedflats 12 weeks before field planting. Harvest herb when upper flowers are in bloom and lowest flowers have developed seed capsules when lobeline and lobelidine alkaloid content highest.
Field spacing: 30cm between rows x 15cm within rows.
Yield: dry herb 1100kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: wireworms
Diseases: cercospora, phyllosticta and septoria leaf spots.
Buyers want: no data.
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Sowing rate: 0.5g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow in plugs 14 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4-6 weeks.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
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Marjoram
(Origanum majorana) |
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Market
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Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 12,000 hectares (world), 800 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 3,500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, pH 6.5-7.5
Crop duration: 1 year (2-3 years in zone 9+)
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Sowing rate: 5-6kg/ha (direct), 0.2-0.3kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: requires warmth to do well; germinates best above 15°C daytime and 10°C nighttime. Sow direct in warmer zones; or sow indirect in plugs 12 weeks before field planting in cooler zones.
Field spacing: 30-40cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: 2.5-3t/ha (years 1-3).
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: botrytis gray mold, alternaria, puccinia rust, septoria.
Buyers want: no data.
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Sowing rate: 1g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or direct in pots 6-8 weeks before sale. Minimum 15°C days, 10°C nights.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 2-4 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite, thrip
Diseases: few problems.
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Chinese Milkvetch, Astragalus
(Astragalus membranaceus) |
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Market
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Products: (root);
Market size: 1,700 hectares (world), 560 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 130-160 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, deep, moist, alkaline
Crop duration: 4-5 years
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Sowing rate: 6-8 kg/ha (direct), 3-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: can be started in deep plugs, but suffers transplant shock easily. Probably better to sow direct in field, in early spring or fall. Scarification helps speed germination. Harvested in fall, lateral roots trimmed, dried partially and then sliced 0.5 cm thick, and then further dried.
Field spacing: 75-100cm between rows x 25cm within rows.
Yield: 7000kg/ha (year 4-5).
Pests: no data
Diseases: unidentified root rot when in wet conditions.
Buyers want: no data.
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|
|
Sowing rate: 75g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow in deep plugs 19-20 weeks before sale; transplant before plugs are root-bound. Highly susceptible to mites.
Seeds to finished plugs: 10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 9 weeks.
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: damping-off.
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| |
Mint
(Mentha spp.) |
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Market
|
Products: (leaf, herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 240,000 hectares (world), 16,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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|
Culture |
Seed density: 17,000-20,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: rich, moist, well-drained, pH 6.5-7
Crop duration: 2-3 years
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|
Sowing rate: 1 kg/ha (direct), 0.1-0.2kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: commercial plantings propagated vegetatively; seed not suitable because of poor oil quality. Root cuttings planted in early spring or fall. Fields must be rotated every 2-3 years to prevent disease buildup.
Field spacing: 40-90cm between rows x 15-45cm within rows.
Yield: peppermint herb oil 35-125kg/ha, fresh herb 10-25t/ha, dried herb 1-3t/ha (years 2-3).
Pests: nematode, aphid
Diseases: puccinia rust, verticillum wilt, leaf spot, sphaceloma spot anthracnose.
Buyers want: peppermint minimum 1-1.2% volatile oil, not more than 10% leaves spotted with puccinia rust, not more than 5% stems, 2% foreign matter or 11% water.
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Sowing rate: 0.5-1g/1000 plants.
Planting: most cultivars grown from cuttings. Seed material not recommended for pot plant sales.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite, aphid, mealybug
Diseases: rust.
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| |
Nettle
(Urtica dioica ) |
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Market
|
Products: (herb, root, leaf, seed);
Market size: 1,600 hectares (world), 240 ha (North America)
Prospects: Prices stable, volume stable
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|
Culture |
Seed density: 6,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun or part shade
Soil: rich, moist, pH 6-7
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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|
Sowing rate: 5kg/ha (direct), 0.6kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow in plugs 12 weeks before field planting, or direct in spring.
Field spacing: 30cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: 1000-2000kg/ha (years 3-5).
Pests: no data
Diseases: no data.
Buyers want: maximum 10% stems, 2% other foreign matter, total ash 20%, acid-insoluble ash 4%.
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|
Sowing rate: 2g/1000 plants (indirect).
Planting: sow in plugs 18 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: spider mite, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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| |
Oregano
(Origanum spp. ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 8,000 hectares (world), 2,400 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up Varieties: most oregano is wildcrafted in Europe. In North America, much of the oregano is Lippia graveolens, the mexican variety.
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|
Culture |
Seed density: 3800-4500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, sandy, dry, pH 6-8
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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|
|
Sowing rate: 2.5-3kg/ha (direct), 0.2-0.5kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: greek variety is best for commercial fresh and dry herb and oil production. Sow direct in spring when soil temperature is at least 15°C, or sow in plugs 6 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 30-40cm between rows x 7-15cm within rows.
Yield: dry herb 1000-3000kg/ha, fresh herb 10-20t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: unspecified fungal diseases can occur in wet weather.
Buyers want: strong scent, good green colour.
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|
Sowing rate: 0.5-1g/1000 plants.
Planting: most varieties cannot be grown from seeds; only greek variety is raised from seed commercially. Sow in plugs 12 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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| |
Parsley
(Petroselinum crispum) |
|
Market
|
Products: (leaf); (leaf, root);
Market size: 250,000 hectares (world), 25,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 650-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: tolerates most soils, but rich, well-drained, moist, pH 6-7 is best
Crop duration: 1 year
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|
Sowing rate: 3-7 kg/ha (direct), 0.5-1.5kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field early spring or fall in warmer zones. Two or three cuts are possible.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 10-20cm within rows.
Yield: fresh herb 5-10t/ha, dry herb 1-2t/ha (year 1).
Pests: carrot root fly
Diseases: septoria and alternaria leaf spot.
Buyers want: good green colour (dry and fresh herb).
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|
|
Sowing rate: 2-4g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or direct in pots. Sow 4-5 seeds per plug or 12 per pot.
Seeds to saleable plants: 12 weeks.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite, aphid
Diseases: few problems.
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| |
Chile Pepper
(Capsicum annuum, C. spp.) |
|
Market
|
Products: (fruit); (fruit);
Market size: 100,000 hectares (world), 10,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 80-250 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained, loam, pH 6.5-7.5
Crop duration: 1 year
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 10kg/ha (direct), 0.5-1kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: should not follow in soils where pepper, eggplant, tobacco, potato, tomato and other Solanaceae were grown previously. Needs 21-30°C to do well. Minimum 16°C soil temperature required for germination In cooler temperate zones. Sow in flats or plugs 8-12 weeks before spring field planting. In warmer zones (e.g. southern U.S.), can be sown direct in field. Cultivation similar to bell peppers, except longer, warmer season required (65-80 days). Easily killed by frost. Excess nitrogen feeding will reduce fruit production. Irrigation necessary in drier areas; can improve yields 6-fold.
Field spacing: 90-130cm between rows x 30-60cm within rows.
Yield: fresh fruit 8-15t/ha, dry fruit 2t/ha (year 1).
Pests: aphid, ground beetle, pepper weevil
Diseases: xanthomonas bacterial spot, anthracnose, and many others.
Buyers want: varies greatly depending on the market.
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|
|
Sowing rate: 10-25g/1000plants.
Planting: sow 10-12 weeks before sale. Sow in flats or plugs. Mostly sold in 4- or 6-packs in spring like bedding annuals, or in pots.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite, aphid
Diseases: few problems.
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| |
Rosemary
(Rosmarinus officinalis ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (leaf); (leaf); (herb);
Market size: Most commercial product is from wildcrafted sources. Cultivated acreage is 200 hectares (North America); world acreage unknown
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained; pH 6.0-7.5
Crop duration: 10-20 years
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|
|
Sowing rate: 1.5-3 kg/ha (direct), 0.2-0.6kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing not recommended because seeds are slow to germinate and seedlings are slow to establish. Sow in seedflats 20 weeks before field spring planting. Germination can be enhanced by exposing seedflat to 24-27°C for 1 week and then lower to 18°C for germination. Where rosemary is not hardy growers dig up plants and overwinter in cool greenhouses. Named cultivars must be grown from cuttings; seed only available for standard species.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 25-50cm within rows.
Yield: fresh herb 2000kg/ha (years 2-20).
Pests: no data
Diseases: root rot.
Buyers want: dried leaf minimum volatile oil 1.2%, maximum foreign matter 10%, maximum woody stems 2%, maximum ash 7%.
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|
|
Sowing rate: 10-15g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow in seedflats 22 weeks before sale in 10cm pots.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, scale, mealybug
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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| |
Sage
(Salvia officinalis ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (herb); (herb, sprouts); (herb);
Market size: 160,000 hectares (world), 2,400 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 125 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, rich, light or heavy, pH 6-6.5
Crop duration: 4-5 years
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|
|
Sowing rate: 5-15 kg/ha (direct), 0.5-2kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring or sow in plugs 8 weeks before field planting. Trim plants to 15 cm in early spring to encourage new shoots. 'Die-back' occurs in heavy soils that do not drain well.
Field spacing: 50-75cm between rows x 30-50cm within rows.
Yield: dresh herb 10-20t/ha, dry herb 2.5-5t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: few problems with pests
Diseases: verticillium wilt, oidium powdery mildew.
Buyers want: minimum volatile oil 1.5%, maximum ash 8-12%, maximum foreign matter 3%.
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|
|
Sowing rate: 20-30g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or flats 12-14 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4-6 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite, mealybug
Diseases: damping-off, powdery mildew.
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| |
Alfalfa
(Medicago sativa ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (seeds, leaf, herb); (herb, sprouts)
Market size: (excluding acreage planted for fodder): 12,000 hectares (world); 5,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices and acreage up
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|
Culture |
Seed density: 350 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained; pH 6.0-7.5
Crop duration: 1-4 years
|
|
(herb) |
Sowing rate: 9-13kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring, broadcast or sow in rows, 15-30cm apart. Two or more cuts at bud stage possible; last cut 6 weeks before killing frost. Heavy potash and phosphorus feeder.
Yield: dry herb 8-10,000kg/ha (years 1-4).
Pests: weevil, leafminer, leafhopper, snout beetle
Diseases: verticillium wilt, leafspot, phytophthora root rot.
Buyers want: organic product.
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|
(sprouts) |
Planting: soak seeds overnight; drain, keep moist. Ready in 3-5 days.
Yield: 4kg(sprouts)/kg(seeds).
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| |
Arnica
(A. montana, A. chamissonis) |
|
Market
|
Products: (flower, root); (flower);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 160 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume down
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|
Culture |
Seed density: 700-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, humus-rich, pH 7 (A. chamissonis), pH 4.5-6 (A. montana)
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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|
Sowing rate: 1-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing not recommended. Sow in seedflats or plugs. Sow A. montana 16-20 weeks before transplanting to field; sow A. chamissonis 12 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 15-60cm between rows x 15-20cm within rows.
Harvest: flower (years 2-5), root (year 3 or 4).
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: chlorosis (yellow leaves) in A. montana caused by alkaline soil.
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|
|
Sowing rate: 8-10g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in seedflats or plugs 20 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8 weeks.
Pests: few problems, whitefly occasionally
Diseases: few problems.
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|
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| |
Lemon Balm
(Melissa officinalis) |
|
Market
|
Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 75 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 2000 seeds/gram
Exposure: sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained clay or sandy loam, pH 6 to 7.5
Crop duration: 2-4 years
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|
|
Sowing rate: 7-9kg/ha (direct), 250-400g/ha (indirect, in plugs).
Planting: sowing in plugs in greenhouse in early spring till mid-summer is most common method; sow 6-8 weeks before transplanting to field. Direct sowing is not as common because weed control is more difficult; sow in early spring or late fall (to come up next spring).
Field spacing: 50-75cm between rows x 18-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry herb 5000kg/ha, fresh herb 10-25t/ha (years 1-3).
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: erisyphe powdery mildew, septoria blight, puccinia rust.
Buyers want: dry carefully to conserve oil in dried herb.
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|
|
Sowing rate: 3-5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in flats or plugs 11-14 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spidermite, thrip
Diseases: mildew.
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| |
Basil
(Ocimum basilicum, and others ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (leaf, herb); (herb); (oil);
Market size: 10,000 hectares (world), 1,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 500-1000 (O. gratissimum 2600, O. kilamandscharicum 2800, O. sanctum 1500-2500) seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: rich, well-drained
Crop duration: 1 year (O. basilicum), 1-3 years (others)
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|
|
Sowing rate: 20kg/ha (direct); 3-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in spring when nighttime temperatures exceed 10°C; or sow in flats or plugs 8 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 15-25cm within rows.
Yield: fresh herb 15,000kg/ha, dry herb 1,500-2,000kg/ha, oil 30kg/ha (year 1)
Pests: aphids, thrips
Diseases: O. basilicum varieties are highly susceptible to fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum) disease. Disease persists in soil for several years. Commercial field plantings should be sown with fusarium-tolerant Nufar F1. Hydroponic operations may choose fusarium-free varieties if equipment and facilities are free of fusarium (spreads by contaminated seeds and equipment). Other basil species (e.g. O. americanum and O. gratissimum) are fusarium-tolerant.
Buyers want: not less than 0.4% essential oil in dried product.
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|
|
Sowing rate: 3-4g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in final pots, or in plugs and later transplant to final pots. Nighttime temperature must not go below 10°C.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, thrips, aphids
Diseases: fusarium (see above).
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| |
Bay Laurel
(Laurus nobilis ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (leaf); (leaf);
Market size: 2,000 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 1 seeds/gram
Exposure: sheltered position in full or half sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, moist
Crop duration: 20-50 years
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 30-60kg/ha
Planting: sow stratified seeds in beds or flats.
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: leaves dried flat for visual appearance.
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|
|
Sowing rate: 5kg/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or flats in March or April.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks (after stratification).
Plugs to saleable plants: 10 weeks to a year.
Pests: whitefly, scale, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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|
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| |
Borage
(Borago officinalis ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (seed, herb, flower, root); (herb, flower, root), (seed);
Market size: 5,000 hectares (world); 2,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, acreage up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 50 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: best in well-drained, fertile, moist soil, but tolerates most soils, pH 5-8
Crop duration: 1 year
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|
|
Sowing rate: 5-17 kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in late spring in rows 45-90cm apart, 30-45cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 300kg/ha; fresh flower 1,000-5,000kg/ha; seed 90-450kg/ha.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: 24% gamma lineolenic acid content in seed oil.
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|
|
Sowing rate: 50-80g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots or plugs.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
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| |
Burdock
(Arctium lappa) |
|
Market
|
Products: (root, leaf); (root);
Market size: 3,000 hectares (world), 170 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 60-110 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or part sun
Soil: deep, loose, humus-rich, pH 6-8
Crop duration: 1-2 years
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 4 kg/ha (direct), 1.5kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring. Or, sow in beds or plugs and transplant to field in spring. For use as fresh vegetable, dig first year roots when young and tender at 3-5 months. For dry root production, dig in fall of second year.
Field spacing: 45-90cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry root 2,000kg/ha (years 2 or 3).
Pests: few problems, grasshopper
Diseases: few problems.
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|
|
Sowing rate: 20g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs 9-10 weeks before sale.
Seeds to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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| |
Calendula
(C. officinalis) |
|
Market
|
Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 880 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 150 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained; can tolerate poor soil with low nitrogen.
Crop duration: 1 year
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 3-9kg/ha (direct), 1kg/ha (indirect in plugs).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring or autumn; or sow in plugs 4-6 weeks before field planting. Seeds need light to germinate; cover seeds lightly or press in soil only.
Field spacing: 20-70cm between rows x 10-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 1-2,000kg/ha, fresh flower 6-9,000kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: blister-beetle, cabbage-looper, caterpillar, leafhopper
Diseases: leaf spot, aster-yellows.
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|
|
Sowing rate: 15g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or direct in pots 10-12 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 4-6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, aphid, thrip, mealybug
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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|
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|
| |
Caraway
(Carum carvi) |
|
Market
|
Products: (seed); (seed)
Market size: 19,000 hectares (world), 2,500 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 350-400 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, pH 6-7.8.
Crop duration: 1-2 years (depending on variety)
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 8-11 kg/ha.
Planting: sow standard biennial type direct in field late June or early July; harvest following year in August. Sow annual type in May (suited for warmer regions with 5-6 frost-free months). Sometimes sown with annual cover crops such as coriander, dill, mustard the first year.
Field spacing: 10-50cm between rows x 4-15cm within rows.
Yield: seed 600-3,000kg/ha, oil 4.5-7kg/ha (year 1 or 2, depending on variety).
Pests: leafhopper
Diseases: aster yellows.
Buyers want: seed minimum 3% oil, maximum 12% moisture.
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| |
Catnip
(Nepeta cataria ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (herb, leaf);
Market size: 2,400 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 1500-1600 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or partial sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, sandy, pH 6.5
Crop duration: 2-5 years
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 12 kg/ha (direct), 1kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring or late fall. Or, sow in plugs 8-10 weeks before field planting. Seed needs light to germinate; sow shallow 2-4mm deep.
Field spacing: 45-90cm between rows x 30-40cm within rows.
Harvest: leaf, herb (years 2-5).
Yield: dry herb 3-6t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 3g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or seedflats 12-15 weeks before sale. Sow 2-4mm deep.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8-10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3-5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
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|
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| |
Chamomile
(Matricaria recutita, Chamaemelum nobile ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 40,000 hectares (world), 4,800 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 10,000-18,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained, moist to dry
Crop duration: 1 year (M. recutita), 2-3 years (C. nobile)
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 3-4 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect)
Planting: german (M. recutita) is sown direct in field in spring or fall. Fall sowings germinate following spring. Roman (C. nobile) is sown direct or indirect in plugs which are later planted in field. Surface sow only (needs light to germinate). Hand harvesting flowers problematic in areas where labour cost is high; mechanical harvesting still unproven.
Field spacing: 10-50cm between rows x 10-25cm within rows, or broadcast sown.
Yield: dry flower 350-500kg/ha (M. recutita; year 1), 600-1000 kg/ha (C. nobile; years 1-3).
Pests: cnephasia moth
Diseases: aster yellows.
Buyers want: 0.4% or more volatile oil.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 1g/1000plants.
Planting: german (M. recutita) not normally sold in pots; roman (C. nobile) and its varieties are sold in pots or plugs. Seeds need light to germinate; surface sow only.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4-6 weeks.
Pests: aphid, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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|
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| |
Chives
(Allium schoenoprasum, A. tuberosum ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (leaf, flower); (leaf, flower);
Market size: 24,000 hectares (world), 3,200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 750 (A. schoenoprasum), 200-300 (A. tuberosum) seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, humus-rich
Crop duration: 3-5 years
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 2-3 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring, or sow indirect in plugs 12-16 weeks before field planting. Field must be free of quackgrass otherwise harvests will be contaminated.
Field spacing: 30cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: fresh leaf 10-20t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: aphid
Diseases: puccinia rust, downy mildew.
Buyers want: good green colour (dry leaf).
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 5-20g/1000plants (A. schoenoprasum), 50g/1000plants (A. tuberosum)
Planting: sow 10-15 seeds per plug or pot, or sow same amount direct in pots.
Seeds to saleable plants: 24-30 weeks.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12-16 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 11 weeks.
Pests: aphid, thrip
Diseases: few problems.
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|
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| |
Comfrey
(Symphytum officinale, S. x uplandicum) |
|
Market
|
Products: (leaf, root); (root, herb);
Market size: 1,700 hectares (world), 240 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 90-100 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or part sun
Soil: moist, wet or dry
Crop duration: 2-5 years
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Sowing rate: 600-900g/ha (indirect).
Planting: although seed can be sown direct, the high cost of seed dictates indirect sowing in plugs or seedbed and transplanting to field. Root cuttings (12,000/ha) of named cultivars (e.g. Bocking No. 14) recommended over seed.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 90cm within rows.
Yield: dry leaf 12t/ha (years 2-5), dry root 1,800kg/ha (year 3, 4 or 5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: comfrey rust.
Buyers want: low pyrrolizidine alkaloid content, particularly echimidine; leaf should be cut early to avoid alkaloid buildup.
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Sowing rate: 50-70g/1000plants.
Planting: sow S. officinale in plugs or seedflats 12-14 weeks before sale. S. x uplandicum and ornamental varieties are propagated by division or root cutting.
Seeds to saleable plants: 12 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, aphid
Diseases: comfrey rust.
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Coriander, Cilantro
(Coriandrum sativum) |
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Market
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Products: (seed); (herb); (seed, herb);
Market size: 600,000 hectares (world), 5,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 110-150 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun (seed), full or half sun (fresh herb)
Soil: deep, fertile, light or heavy, well-drained, pH 6.5-7.5
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 25 kg/ha (seed), 80 kg/ha (fresh herb).
Planting: for seed and seed oil production, sow direct in spring. For fresh herb (cilantro) and herb oil production sow early spring and fall; will bolt in hot weather.
Field spacing: 50-60cm between rows x 11-13cm between plants (seed), 20-25cm between rows x 8-10cm (fresh herb).
Yield: seed 900-1,500kg/ha, fresh herb 10-12t/ha, oil 1-9kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: thrip
Diseases: asters yellow, erysiphe powdery mildew, puccinia rust, pseudamonas, and sclerotina.
Buyers want: less than 12% moisture.
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Sowing rate: 200g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots; do not transplant – root disturbance causes plants to bolt early.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: aphid, thrip, mite, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Dandelion
(Taraxacum officinale) |
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Market
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Products: (root, herb); (leaf)
Market size: 7,000 hectares (world); 500 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 1200-1900 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: most soils
Crop duration: 2 years (root), 1-4 years (fresh leaf)
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Sowing rate: 1-3kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring or late summer. Fresh leaf gathered as vegetable spring, summer and fall. Herb for drying harvested spring or summer. Roots dug late fall.
Field spacing: 45cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: dry root 1100-1700kg/ha (year 2).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: water-soluble extractive not less than 30%.
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Dill
(Anethum graveolens, A. sowa ) |
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Market
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Products: (seed, herb); (leaf); (leaf, seed);
Market size: 37,000 hectares (world), 4,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices same, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 400-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, moderately rich, loose soil, pH 5.5-6.5
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 9-12 kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in spring.
Field spacing: 25-50cm between rows; thin to 10cm within rows for fresh herb production or 2-3cm within rows for seed production.
Yield: seed 600-900kg/ha, fresh herb 2500-5000kg/ha, dried herb 1000kg/ha, oil 50-110kg/ha.
Pests: aphid, tarnished plant bug
Diseases: powdery mildew, leafspot, aster yellows.
Buyers want: good green colour (dried leaf).
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Sowing rate: 15-40g/1000pots.
Planting: do not transplant; sow direct in pots, 8-20 seeds per pot.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: aphid
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Echinacea
(Echinacea purpurea, E. angustifolia, E. pallida ) |
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Market
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Products: (root, herb, flower, seed); (herb);
Market size: 16,000 hectares (world), 4,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices down, acreage up; market for E. purpurea herb is weak.
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Culture |
Seed density: 160-500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained, pH 6-7.5
Crop duration: 3-4 years
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Sowing rate: 14-18 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: E. purpurea seeds do not require pretreatment. Can be started in plugs and transplanted to the field, which is the preferred method, or can be sown direct in the field. Sow E. purpurea 100-120 days before field planting; sow E. angustifolia and E. pallida 150 days before planting. E. angustifolia and E. pallida germination benefits from pretreatment; stratify at 5°C for 4-12 weeks with light. Pretreatment with Ethrel (1 millimolar for 2 weeks), or with bleach (1% for 10 min.) improves E. angustifolia germination.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 20-45cm within rows.
Yield: E. purpurea herb 6,500-11,000kg/ha (years 2-4); E. purpurea root 1000kg/ha (year 4); E. angustifolia root 1100kg/ha (year 4); no data for E. pallida root.
Pests: leafhopper
Diseases: aster yellows (spread by leafhoppers), sclerotinia stem and root rot, botrytis.
Buyers want: certificate of botanical identity required for E. angustifolia; echinacoside 1.4% (roots).
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Sowing rate: 10g/1000plants.
Planting: sow 14 weeks (E. purpurea) to 22 weeks (E. angustifolia, E. pallida) before sale. Stratify or pretreat E. angustifolia and E. pallida seed before sowing (see above).
Seeds to finished plugs: 8-12 weeks (after pretreatment).
Plugs to saleable plants: 6-10 weeks.
Pests: few problems, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Elecampane
(Inula helenium ) |
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Market
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Products: (root); (root);
Market size: 800 hectares (world), 25 ha (North America).
Prospects: prices same, volume same
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Culture |
Seed density: 600-800 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: moist, deep, well-drained
Crop duration: 2 years.
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Sowing rate: 400-600g/ha (direct); 5g/1000plants (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing not recommended. Start in plugs 8 weeks before spring or late summer field planting.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 45cm within rows.
Yield: 2500kg/ha (year 2).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: erysiphe powdery mildew (late summer), ramularia leafspot, puccinia rust.
Buyers want: not less than 1.8% volatile oil, not more than 6-8% ash, not less than 27% water-soluble extractive, not more than 2% foreign matter.
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Sowing rate: 5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs, seedflats or seed beds. Germination in 4-7 days.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 2-6 weeks.
Pests: spider mite, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Fennel
(Foeniculum vulgare) |
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Market
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Products: (seed); (leaf, bulb); (herb);
Market size: 70,000 hectares (world), 7,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 200-300 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, deep, moderately fertile, pH 7-8.
Crop duration: 2-3 years (florence fennel, 1 year)
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Sowing rate: 4-6kg/ha (direct), 30g/1000plants (indirect).
Planting: sow sweet fennel direct; bronze direct or indirect; florence indirect.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: seed 1000-1600kg/ha (years 2-3), fresh herb 8-10t/ha (year 1-3), dried herb 1.5-2.5t/ha (year 1-3), seed oil 40-75kg/ha.
Pests: aphid, lygus tarnished plant bug
Diseases: sclerotinia stemrot, rhizoctonia damping-off, erwinia soft rot.
Buyers want: not less than 2-4% volatile oil.
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Sowing rate: 30g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots or in plugs. Does not transplant well; best to sow direct.
Seeds to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3 weeks.
Pests: aphid
Diseases: damping-off.
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Fenugreek
(Trigonella foenum-graecum) |
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Market
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Products: (seeds, leaf, herb); (herb, sprouts); (seed)
Market size: 90,000 hectares (world), 7,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 100 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, warm soil
Crop duration: 1 year.
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Sowing rate: 25-35kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in spring. Broadcast or in close rows.
Field spacing: 20cm between rows x 10-20cm within rows.
Yield: seed 700-900kg/ha, dried forage 2-10t/ha.
Pests: no data
Diseases: no data.
Buyers want: swelling index not less than 6, foreign matter not more than 2-5%, ash not more than 5-6% (seed).
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Feverfew
(Tanacetum parthenium) |
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Market
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Products: (herb);
Market size: 1,300 hectares (world), 160 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume down
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Culture |
Seed density: 7,500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained, dry soil
Crop duration: 1-2 years
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Sowing rate: 1-1.5 kg/ha (direct); 0.5g/1000plants.
Planting: plugs preferred over direct sowing because seeds very small. Sow plugs 8 weeks before spring planting date. Don't allow to go to seed to avoid winterkill. Frequent fertilization with low nitrogen fertilizer is beneficial. Long days trigger flowering. Short lived perennial; some growers treat as annual.
Field spacing: 20-90cm between rows x 10-20cm within rows.
Yield: 300-5000kg/ha (years 1-2).
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: minimum 0.4-0.8% parthenolide.
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Sowing rate: 0.5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow 14-16 weeks before sales in flats or plug trays.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6-8 weeks.
Pests: aphid, whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
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Scented Geranium
(Pelargonium spp. ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (leaf);
Market size: 4,000 hectares (world), 400 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 360-450 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, neutral to alkaline
Crop duration: 1 year temperate areas, 3-5 year in tropical areas.d o Planting: all commercially important varieties are propagated by cuttings. Plugs planted in spring after last frost date. FieldSpacing: 60-100cm between rows x 20-50cm within rows. Yield: fresh leaf 13-30t/ha, oil 13-17kg/ha (years 1-5). PestsDiseases: aphid, caterpillar / alternaria leaf spot.
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Seeds/ |
Planting: all commercially important varieties are propagated by cuttings. Plugs planted in spring after last frost date.
Field spacing: 60-100cm between rows x 20-50cm within rows.
Yield: fresh leaf 13-30t/ha, oil 13-17kg/ha (years 1-5).
Pests: aphid, caterpillar
Diseases: alternaria leaf spot.
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Sowing rate: 30-80g/1000 plants.
Planting: commercial propagation is by cutting only.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6-8 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, geranium and peach aphid, mite, mealybug, scale
Diseases: various leaf spots including xanthomonas, alternaria, botrytis.
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Gingko
(Ginkgo biloba ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (seed);
Market size: 5,000 hectares (world), 600 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 1 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: rich, well-drained, moist soil
Crop duration: 20-50+ years
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Sowing rate: 2-4kg/hectare.
Planting: seeds require stratification, 1-2 months warm, then 1-2 months cold, then sow in spring. Common nursery practice is to sow without stratification in outdoor seed beds in fall. Seedlings shaded for 2-3 years and fertilized with manure. Seedlings transplanted to permanent location when 7-8 years old. Trees kept short (2m) and spaced close (2-3m) in commercial plantations for medicinal leaf production; otherwise allowed to grow higher and spaced further for seed production. Slow growing. Leaves harvested in early fall as they begin to turn yellow; dried in sun. Fruits harvested late fall, seeds cleaned and roasted.
Field spacing: 3-5m apart (2-3m within rows for leaf production).
Yield: no data (leaf years 8-50, seed years 20-50).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: tolerates pollution.
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Sowing rate: 2-4kg/1000 plants.
Planting: stratify seed warm (1-2 months) followed by cold (1-2 months). Sow in deep plugs. Keep lightly shaded.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks to 1 year.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8 weeks (10cm pots), 2-5 years (larger plants).
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Ginseng
(Panax quinquefolius, P. ginseng; Eleutherococcus senticosus) |
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Market
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Products: (root)
Market size: Panax 70,000 hectares (world), 7,400 ha (North America)
Prospects: Panax prices down, volume up. Prospects for woodsgrown Panax much better than shadecloth grown.
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Culture |
Seed density: Panax 15; Eleutherococcus 100 seeds/gram
Exposure: Panax 70% shade; Eleutherococcus 30-50% shade
Soil: well-drained, sandy or clay loam, in raised beds, pH 5.5-6.0
Crop duration: Panax 3-4 years (shadecloth), 4-8 years (woodsgrown); Eleutherococcus 6-12 years
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Sowing rate: 40-100 kg/ha (shadecloth), 10-20 kg/ha (woodsgrown).
Planting: Panax seeds stratified one year. Sow stratified seeds in seedbeds and transplant seedlings to raised beds in years 1-2, or sow direct in raised beds. Mulch with straw. Remove shadecloth over winter. Eleutherococcus seeds need at least cycles of warm-cold stratification; best results obtained when sown in flats in fall and left out over winter under mulch.
Field spacing: Panax 15-20cm between rows x 15-20cm within rows, further apart in woodsgrown plantings; Eleutherococcus 60-100cm apart.
Yield: Panax (shadecloth) 3400kg/ha (years 3-4).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: Panax alternaria leaf blight, rhizoctonia wilt, phytophthora, powdery mildew; Eleutherococcus few problems.
Buyers want: ginsenosides not less than 1.5-2%, ash not more than 4-8%.
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Sowing rate: Panax 150g/1000 plants; Eleutherococcus 250g/1000plants.
Planting: sow stratified Panax seeds in deep plugs, 2-4 seeds per plug, or sow in seed flats. Provide shade, keep cool and well ventilated.
Seeds to finished plugs: Panax 6 months (after stratification).
Plugs to saleable plants: Panax 1 year.
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: Panax alternaria, rhizoctonia.
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Goldenseal
(Hydrastis canadensis) |
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Market
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Products: (root);
Market size: 17,000 hectares (world), 7,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices down, volume up. Majority of market supplied by wildcrafted material, but wild stocks are becoming depleted and now listed on CITES.
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Culture |
Seed density: 50-55 seeds/gram
Exposure: 50-75% Shade
Soil: well-drained, deep, fertile soil, pH 5.5-6.5, in raised beds or on gentle slope.
Crop duration: 3-6 years
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Sowing rate: 10kg/ha (direct), 100g/1000 plants (indirect); rootlets 100,000/ha.
Planting: growers prefer rootlets over seeds because they are more reliable and quicker to harvestable size (3 years); however, seed quality has improved recently and cost of seeds is much less than rootlets. Seeds take 5-6 years to get harvestable roots. Seeds must not dry out; must be sown immediately after harvest in late summer to come up following spring. Avoid straw mulch and fertilize lightly.
Field spacing: 15-40cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: 900-2300kg/ha (year 3-6).
Pests: slugs
Diseases: alternaria, phytophthora, rhizoctonia, botrytis leafspot, fusarium.
Buyers want: min. alkaloids 3.5%.
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Sowing rate: seed 100g/1000plants, rootlets 300-1000/1000 plants.
Planting: for potted plant production, best to start with rootlets. Pot up rootlets 4 weeks before sale. Provide cool, shaded, and well-ventilated conditions; will not tolerate full sun and high humidity.
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: alternaria and other diseases common in potted plants in greenhouses.
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Lavender
(Lavandula angustifolia, L. x intermedia) |
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Market
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Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 9,000 hectares (world), 1,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 850-1300 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained, deep, not too rich, pH 6.5-7.5
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 3-6kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: lavandins (L. x intermedia; e.g. 'Provence' and 'Grosso'), best for commercial flower and oil production, are propagated vegetatively only. Only english types are available in seed form, but seed grown material may not be uniform enough for field production. Direct sowing not recommended; germination is too slow (15-30 days). Sow in seedflats 12-16 weeks before outdoor planting; transplant to plugs at 4-6 weeks, then transplant to field.
Field spacing: 60-120cm between rows x 25-120cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 500-1500kg/ha (years 2-5), oil 8-32kg/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: caterpillar, nematode
Diseases: phoma scab, septoria leaf spot, armillaria root rot.
Buyers want: 1.3% volatile oil or higher, good colour.
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Sowing rate: 5-10g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow 20-26 weeks before sale. Germination of english types (L. angustifolia) is frequently below 50%; scarification or freezing of seedflat can sometimes improve germination.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12-16 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8-10 weeks.
Pests: mealybug, whitefly, spider mite, scale
Diseases: few problems.
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Lemongrass
(Cymbopogon citratus, C. flexuosus) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (stem); (herb);
Market size: 50,000 hectares (world), 2,600 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: C. flexuosus 2000-2400 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, sandy loam, pH 5.5-6.5
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: C. flexuosus 5-10kg/ha (direct).
Planting: C. citratus grown from cuttings only. Sow C. flexuosus in spring. Heavy feeder. Oil quality of C. citratus highest at 18-24 months.
Field spacing: C. citratus 100cm between rows x 45cm within rows; broadcast C. flexuosus, or sow in rows 60-100cm apart.
Yield: C. citratus dry herb 4-6t/ha, oil 30-40kg/ha (years 1-5); C. flexuosus dry herb 10-15t/ha, 80kg/ha (years 1-5).
Pests: no data
Diseases: C. citratus himantia web blight, myriogenospora tangletop, helminthosperium eyespot, papularia.
Buyers want: high citral content.
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Sowing rate: 5g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow C. flexuosus in plugs 13-14 weeks before sale. C. citratus grown from cuttings only.
Seeds to finished plugs: 10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3-8 weeks.
Pests: spider mite, whitefly, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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Licorice
(Glycyrrhiza spp. ) |
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Market
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Products: (root);
Market size: 45,000 hectares (world), 480 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices down, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 400-600 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: deep, rich, moist, sandy, slightly alkaline, pH 7.3-7.8
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 3-4 kg/ha (direct), 5-10g/1000 plants (indirect).
Planting: soak seeds 2-3 hours in 30°C water or scarify before planting to weaken hard seed coat. Sow direct in spring or in deep plugs 12-16 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 70-90cm between rows x 45-90cm within rows.
Yield: G. glabra dry root 10-20t/ha (year 3-5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: uromyces rust, cercospora blight.
Buyers want: minimum 4% glycyrrhizinic acid, minimum 20% water soluble extractive.
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Sowing rate: 5-10g/1000plants.
Planting: soak seed in warm water (30°C) for 2-3 hours or scarify before sowing. Sow in flats or deep plugs 22-26 weeks before sale. Highly susceptible to damping-off; preventative application of damping-off control recommended.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12-16 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: damping-off.
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Lobelia
(Lobelia inflata ) |
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Market
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Products: (seed, herb);
Market size: 9,000 hectares (world), 1,700 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 30,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, rich soil
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 0.2-1kg/ha (direct), 0.1kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow in plugs or seedflats 12 weeks before field planting. Harvest herb when upper flowers are in bloom and lowest flowers have developed seed capsules when lobeline and lobelidine alkaloid content highest.
Field spacing: 30cm between rows x 15cm within rows.
Yield: dry herb 1100kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: wireworms
Diseases: cercospora, phyllosticta and septoria leaf spots.
Buyers want: no data.
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Sowing rate: 0.5g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow in plugs 14 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4-6 weeks.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
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Marjoram
(Origanum majorana) |
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Market
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Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 12,000 hectares (world), 800 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 3,500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, pH 6.5-7.5
Crop duration: 1 year (2-3 years in zone 9+)
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Sowing rate: 5-6kg/ha (direct), 0.2-0.3kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: requires warmth to do well; germinates best above 15°C daytime and 10°C nighttime. Sow direct in warmer zones; or sow indirect in plugs 12 weeks before field planting in cooler zones.
Field spacing: 30-40cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: 2.5-3t/ha (years 1-3).
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: botrytis gray mold, alternaria, puccinia rust, septoria.
Buyers want: no data.
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Sowing rate: 1g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or direct in pots 6-8 weeks before sale. Minimum 15°C days, 10°C nights.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 2-4 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite, thrip
Diseases: few problems.
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Chinese Milkvetch, Astragalus
(Astragalus membranaceus) |
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Market
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Products: (root);
Market size: 1,700 hectares (world), 560 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 130-160 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, deep, moist, alkaline
Crop duration: 4-5 years
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Sowing rate: 6-8 kg/ha (direct), 3-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: can be started in deep plugs, but suffers transplant shock easily. Probably better to sow direct in field, in early spring or fall. Scarification helps speed germination. Harvested in fall, lateral roots trimmed, dried partially and then sliced 0.5 cm thick, and then further dried.
Field spacing: 75-100cm between rows x 25cm within rows.
Yield: 7000kg/ha (year 4-5).
Pests: no data
Diseases: unidentified root rot when in wet conditions.
Buyers want: no data.
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Sowing rate: 75g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow in deep plugs 19-20 weeks before sale; transplant before plugs are root-bound. Highly susceptible to mites.
Seeds to finished plugs: 10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 9 weeks.
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: damping-off.
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Mint
(Mentha spp.) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf, herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 240,000 hectares (world), 16,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 17,000-20,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: rich, moist, well-drained, pH 6.5-7
Crop duration: 2-3 years
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Sowing rate: 1 kg/ha (direct), 0.1-0.2kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: commercial plantings propagated vegetatively; seed not suitable because of poor oil quality. Root cuttings planted in early spring or fall. Fields must be rotated every 2-3 years to prevent disease buildup.
Field spacing: 40-90cm between rows x 15-45cm within rows.
Yield: peppermint herb oil 35-125kg/ha, fresh herb 10-25t/ha, dried herb 1-3t/ha (years 2-3).
Pests: nematode, aphid
Diseases: puccinia rust, verticillum wilt, leaf spot, sphaceloma spot anthracnose.
Buyers want: peppermint minimum 1-1.2% volatile oil, not more than 10% leaves spotted with puccinia rust, not more than 5% stems, 2% foreign matter or 11% water.
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Sowing rate: 0.5-1g/1000 plants.
Planting: most cultivars grown from cuttings. Seed material not recommended for pot plant sales.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite, aphid, mealybug
Diseases: rust.
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Nettle
(Urtica dioica ) |
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Market
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Products: (herb, root, leaf, seed);
Market size: 1,600 hectares (world), 240 ha (North America)
Prospects: Prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 6,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun or part shade
Soil: rich, moist, pH 6-7
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 5kg/ha (direct), 0.6kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow in plugs 12 weeks before field planting, or direct in spring.
Field spacing: 30cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: 1000-2000kg/ha (years 3-5).
Pests: no data
Diseases: no data.
Buyers want: maximum 10% stems, 2% other foreign matter, total ash 20%, acid-insoluble ash 4%.
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Sowing rate: 2g/1000 plants (indirect).
Planting: sow in plugs 18 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: spider mite, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Oregano
(Origanum spp. ) |
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Market
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Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 8,000 hectares (world), 2,400 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up Varieties: most oregano is wildcrafted in Europe. In North America, much of the oregano is Lippia graveolens, the mexican variety.
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Culture |
Seed density: 3800-4500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, sandy, dry, pH 6-8
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 2.5-3kg/ha (direct), 0.2-0.5kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: greek variety is best for commercial fresh and dry herb and oil production. Sow direct in spring when soil temperature is at least 15°C, or sow in plugs 6 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 30-40cm between rows x 7-15cm within rows.
Yield: dry herb 1000-3000kg/ha, fresh herb 10-20t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: unspecified fungal diseases can occur in wet weather.
Buyers want: strong scent, good green colour.
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Sowing rate: 0.5-1g/1000 plants.
Planting: most varieties cannot be grown from seeds; only greek variety is raised from seed commercially. Sow in plugs 12 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Parsley
(Petroselinum crispum) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (leaf, root);
Market size: 250,000 hectares (world), 25,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 650-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: tolerates most soils, but rich, well-drained, moist, pH 6-7 is best
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 3-7 kg/ha (direct), 0.5-1.5kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field early spring or fall in warmer zones. Two or three cuts are possible.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 10-20cm within rows.
Yield: fresh herb 5-10t/ha, dry herb 1-2t/ha (year 1).
Pests: carrot root fly
Diseases: septoria and alternaria leaf spot.
Buyers want: good green colour (dry and fresh herb).
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Sowing rate: 2-4g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or direct in pots. Sow 4-5 seeds per plug or 12 per pot.
Seeds to saleable plants: 12 weeks.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite, aphid
Diseases: few problems.
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Chile Pepper
(Capsicum annuum, C. spp.) |
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Market
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Products: (fruit); (fruit);
Market size: 100,000 hectares (world), 10,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 80-250 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained, loam, pH 6.5-7.5
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 10kg/ha (direct), 0.5-1kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: should not follow in soils where pepper, eggplant, tobacco, potato, tomato and other Solanaceae were grown previously. Needs 21-30°C to do well. Minimum 16°C soil temperature required for germination In cooler temperate zones. Sow in flats or plugs 8-12 weeks before spring field planting. In warmer zones (e.g. southern U.S.), can be sown direct in field. Cultivation similar to bell peppers, except longer, warmer season required (65-80 days). Easily killed by frost. Excess nitrogen feeding will reduce fruit production. Irrigation necessary in drier areas; can improve yields 6-fold.
Field spacing: 90-130cm between rows x 30-60cm within rows.
Yield: fresh fruit 8-15t/ha, dry fruit 2t/ha (year 1).
Pests: aphid, ground beetle, pepper weevil
Diseases: xanthomonas bacterial spot, anthracnose, and many others.
Buyers want: varies greatly depending on the market.
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Sowing rate: 10-25g/1000plants.
Planting: sow 10-12 weeks before sale. Sow in flats or plugs. Mostly sold in 4- or 6-packs in spring like bedding annuals, or in pots.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite, aphid
Diseases: few problems.
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Rosemary
(Rosmarinus officinalis ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (leaf); (herb);
Market size: Most commercial product is from wildcrafted sources. Cultivated acreage is 200 hectares (North America); world acreage unknown
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained; pH 6.0-7.5
Crop duration: 10-20 years
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Sowing rate: 1.5-3 kg/ha (direct), 0.2-0.6kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing not recommended because seeds are slow to germinate and seedlings are slow to establish. Sow in seedflats 20 weeks before field spring planting. Germination can be enhanced by exposing seedflat to 24-27°C for 1 week and then lower to 18°C for germination. Where rosemary is not hardy growers dig up plants and overwinter in cool greenhouses. Named cultivars must be grown from cuttings; seed only available for standard species.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 25-50cm within rows.
Yield: fresh herb 2000kg/ha (years 2-20).
Pests: no data
Diseases: root rot.
Buyers want: dried leaf minimum volatile oil 1.2%, maximum foreign matter 10%, maximum woody stems 2%, maximum ash 7%.
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Sowing rate: 10-15g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow in seedflats 22 weeks before sale in 10cm pots.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, scale, mealybug
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Sage
(Salvia officinalis ) |
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Market
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Products: (herb); (herb, sprouts); (herb);
Market size: 160,000 hectares (world), 2,400 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 125 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, rich, light or heavy, pH 6-6.5
Crop duration: 4-5 years
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Sowing rate: 5-15 kg/ha (direct), 0.5-2kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring or sow in plugs 8 weeks before field planting. Trim plants to 15 cm in early spring to encourage new shoots. 'Die-back' occurs in heavy soils that do not drain well.
Field spacing: 50-75cm between rows x 30-50cm within rows.
Yield: dresh herb 10-20t/ha, dry herb 2.5-5t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: few problems with pests
Diseases: verticillium wilt, oidium powdery mildew.
Buyers want: minimum volatile oil 1.5%, maximum ash 8-12%, maximum foreign matter 3%.
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Sowing rate: 20-30g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or flats 12-14 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4-6 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite, mealybug
Diseases: damping-off, powdery mildew.
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St. Johnswort
(Hypericum perfoliatum ) |
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Market
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Products: (herb); (herb);
Market size: 2,400 hectares (world), 800 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices down, volume down
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Culture |
Seed density: 7,000-10,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, dry, pH 6-7
Crop duration: 2-3 years
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Sowing rate: 1-1.5kg/ha (direct), 0.1-0.5kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing has been tried with success, but seedlings are slow to establish and weed control is a problem. Sow direct in field in spring. Or, sow indirect in plugs 8 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 20-90cm between rows x 20-30cm within rows.
Yield: 1000-1200kg/ha (years 2-3).
Pests: chrysolina beetle, nematode
Diseases: colletotrichum anthracnose. Chrysolina beetle has become a serious problem is some areas after several years of cultivation. Serious anthracnose damage has been reported in areas where St. Johnswort has been cultivated for several years. There is evidence of a correlation between chrysolina infestation and anthracnose.
Buyers want: minimum 0.3% hypericin, maximum 5-8% ash, 2% foreign matter, 10% loss on drying.
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Sowing rate: 2g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs 10-12 weeks prior to sale. anthracnose disease (reddening of foliage and dieback) is a serious problem in plug production; avoid overwatering and watering late in day. Anthracnose spreads by unknown vector; may be insect or splashing water.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 2-4 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: colletotrichum anthracnose.
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Alfalfa
(Medicago sativa ) |
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Market
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Products: (seeds, leaf, herb); (herb, sprouts)
Market size: (excluding acreage planted for fodder): 12,000 hectares (world); 5,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices and acreage up
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Culture |
Seed density: 350 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained; pH 6.0-7.5
Crop duration: 1-4 years
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(herb) |
Sowing rate: 9-13kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring, broadcast or sow in rows, 15-30cm apart. Two or more cuts at bud stage possible; last cut 6 weeks before killing frost. Heavy potash and phosphorus feeder.
Yield: dry herb 8-10,000kg/ha (years 1-4).
Pests: weevil, leafminer, leafhopper, snout beetle
Diseases: verticillium wilt, leafspot, phytophthora root rot.
Buyers want: organic product.
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(sprouts) |
Planting: soak seeds overnight; drain, keep moist. Ready in 3-5 days.
Yield: 4kg(sprouts)/kg(seeds).
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Arnica
(A. montana, A. chamissonis) |
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Market
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Products: (flower, root); (flower);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 160 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume down
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Culture |
Seed density: 700-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, humus-rich, pH 7 (A. chamissonis), pH 4.5-6 (A. montana)
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 1-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing not recommended. Sow in seedflats or plugs. Sow A. montana 16-20 weeks before transplanting to field; sow A. chamissonis 12 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 15-60cm between rows x 15-20cm within rows.
Harvest: flower (years 2-5), root (year 3 or 4).
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: chlorosis (yellow leaves) in A. montana caused by alkaline soil.
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Sowing rate: 8-10g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in seedflats or plugs 20 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8 weeks.
Pests: few problems, whitefly occasionally
Diseases: few problems.
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Lemon Balm
(Melissa officinalis) |
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Market
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Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 75 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 2000 seeds/gram
Exposure: sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained clay or sandy loam, pH 6 to 7.5
Crop duration: 2-4 years
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Sowing rate: 7-9kg/ha (direct), 250-400g/ha (indirect, in plugs).
Planting: sowing in plugs in greenhouse in early spring till mid-summer is most common method; sow 6-8 weeks before transplanting to field. Direct sowing is not as common because weed control is more difficult; sow in early spring or late fall (to come up next spring).
Field spacing: 50-75cm between rows x 18-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry herb 5000kg/ha, fresh herb 10-25t/ha (years 1-3).
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: erisyphe powdery mildew, septoria blight, puccinia rust.
Buyers want: dry carefully to conserve oil in dried herb.
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Sowing rate: 3-5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in flats or plugs 11-14 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spidermite, thrip
Diseases: mildew.
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Basil
(Ocimum basilicum, and others ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf, herb); (herb); (oil);
Market size: 10,000 hectares (world), 1,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 500-1000 (O. gratissimum 2600, O. kilamandscharicum 2800, O. sanctum 1500-2500) seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: rich, well-drained
Crop duration: 1 year (O. basilicum), 1-3 years (others)
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Sowing rate: 20kg/ha (direct); 3-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in spring when nighttime temperatures exceed 10°C; or sow in flats or plugs 8 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 15-25cm within rows.
Yield: fresh herb 15,000kg/ha, dry herb 1,500-2,000kg/ha, oil 30kg/ha (year 1)
Pests: aphids, thrips
Diseases: O. basilicum varieties are highly susceptible to fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum) disease. Disease persists in soil for several years. Commercial field plantings should be sown with fusarium-tolerant Nufar F1. Hydroponic operations may choose fusarium-free varieties if equipment and facilities are free of fusarium (spreads by contaminated seeds and equipment). Other basil species (e.g. O. americanum and O. gratissimum) are fusarium-tolerant.
Buyers want: not less than 0.4% essential oil in dried product.
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Sowing rate: 3-4g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in final pots, or in plugs and later transplant to final pots. Nighttime temperature must not go below 10°C.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, thrips, aphids
Diseases: fusarium (see above).
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Bay Laurel
(Laurus nobilis ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (leaf);
Market size: 2,000 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 1 seeds/gram
Exposure: sheltered position in full or half sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, moist
Crop duration: 20-50 years
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Sowing rate: 30-60kg/ha
Planting: sow stratified seeds in beds or flats.
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: leaves dried flat for visual appearance.
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Sowing rate: 5kg/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or flats in March or April.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks (after stratification).
Plugs to saleable plants: 10 weeks to a year.
Pests: whitefly, scale, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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Borage
(Borago officinalis ) |
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Market
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Products: (seed, herb, flower, root); (herb, flower, root), (seed);
Market size: 5,000 hectares (world); 2,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, acreage up
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Culture |
Seed density: 50 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: best in well-drained, fertile, moist soil, but tolerates most soils, pH 5-8
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 5-17 kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in late spring in rows 45-90cm apart, 30-45cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 300kg/ha; fresh flower 1,000-5,000kg/ha; seed 90-450kg/ha.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: 24% gamma lineolenic acid content in seed oil.
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Sowing rate: 50-80g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots or plugs.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
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Burdock
(Arctium lappa) |
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Market
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Products: (root, leaf); (root);
Market size: 3,000 hectares (world), 170 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 60-110 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or part sun
Soil: deep, loose, humus-rich, pH 6-8
Crop duration: 1-2 years
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Sowing rate: 4 kg/ha (direct), 1.5kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring. Or, sow in beds or plugs and transplant to field in spring. For use as fresh vegetable, dig first year roots when young and tender at 3-5 months. For dry root production, dig in fall of second year.
Field spacing: 45-90cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry root 2,000kg/ha (years 2 or 3).
Pests: few problems, grasshopper
Diseases: few problems.
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Sowing rate: 20g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs 9-10 weeks before sale.
Seeds to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Calendula
(C. officinalis) |
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Market
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Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 880 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 150 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained; can tolerate poor soil with low nitrogen.
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 3-9kg/ha (direct), 1kg/ha (indirect in plugs).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring or autumn; or sow in plugs 4-6 weeks before field planting. Seeds need light to germinate; cover seeds lightly or press in soil only.
Field spacing: 20-70cm between rows x 10-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 1-2,000kg/ha, fresh flower 6-9,000kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: blister-beetle, cabbage-looper, caterpillar, leafhopper
Diseases: leaf spot, aster-yellows.
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Sowing rate: 15g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or direct in pots 10-12 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 4-6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, aphid, thrip, mealybug
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Caraway
(Carum carvi) |
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Market
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Products: (seed); (seed)
Market size: 19,000 hectares (world), 2,500 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 350-400 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, pH 6-7.8.
Crop duration: 1-2 years (depending on variety)
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Sowing rate: 8-11 kg/ha.
Planting: sow standard biennial type direct in field late June or early July; harvest following year in August. Sow annual type in May (suited for warmer regions with 5-6 frost-free months). Sometimes sown with annual cover crops such as coriander, dill, mustard the first year.
Field spacing: 10-50cm between rows x 4-15cm within rows.
Yield: seed 600-3,000kg/ha, oil 4.5-7kg/ha (year 1 or 2, depending on variety).
Pests: leafhopper
Diseases: aster yellows.
Buyers want: seed minimum 3% oil, maximum 12% moisture.
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Catnip
(Nepeta cataria ) |
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Market
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Products: (herb, leaf);
Market size: 2,400 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 1500-1600 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or partial sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, sandy, pH 6.5
Crop duration: 2-5 years
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Sowing rate: 12 kg/ha (direct), 1kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring or late fall. Or, sow in plugs 8-10 weeks before field planting. Seed needs light to germinate; sow shallow 2-4mm deep.
Field spacing: 45-90cm between rows x 30-40cm within rows.
Harvest: leaf, herb (years 2-5).
Yield: dry herb 3-6t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
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Sowing rate: 3g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or seedflats 12-15 weeks before sale. Sow 2-4mm deep.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8-10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3-5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
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Chamomile
(Matricaria recutita, Chamaemelum nobile ) |
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Market
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Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 40,000 hectares (world), 4,800 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 10,000-18,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained, moist to dry
Crop duration: 1 year (M. recutita), 2-3 years (C. nobile)
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Sowing rate: 3-4 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect)
Planting: german (M. recutita) is sown direct in field in spring or fall. Fall sowings germinate following spring. Roman (C. nobile) is sown direct or indirect in plugs which are later planted in field. Surface sow only (needs light to germinate). Hand harvesting flowers problematic in areas where labour cost is high; mechanical harvesting still unproven.
Field spacing: 10-50cm between rows x 10-25cm within rows, or broadcast sown.
Yield: dry flower 350-500kg/ha (M. recutita; year 1), 600-1000 kg/ha (C. nobile; years 1-3).
Pests: cnephasia moth
Diseases: aster yellows.
Buyers want: 0.4% or more volatile oil.
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Sowing rate: 1g/1000plants.
Planting: german (M. recutita) not normally sold in pots; roman (C. nobile) and its varieties are sold in pots or plugs. Seeds need light to germinate; surface sow only.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4-6 weeks.
Pests: aphid, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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Chives
(Allium schoenoprasum, A. tuberosum ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf, flower); (leaf, flower);
Market size: 24,000 hectares (world), 3,200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 750 (A. schoenoprasum), 200-300 (A. tuberosum) seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, humus-rich
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 2-3 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring, or sow indirect in plugs 12-16 weeks before field planting. Field must be free of quackgrass otherwise harvests will be contaminated.
Field spacing: 30cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: fresh leaf 10-20t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: aphid
Diseases: puccinia rust, downy mildew.
Buyers want: good green colour (dry leaf).
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Sowing rate: 5-20g/1000plants (A. schoenoprasum), 50g/1000plants (A. tuberosum)
Planting: sow 10-15 seeds per plug or pot, or sow same amount direct in pots.
Seeds to saleable plants: 24-30 weeks.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12-16 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 11 weeks.
Pests: aphid, thrip
Diseases: few problems.
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Comfrey
(Symphytum officinale, S. x uplandicum) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf, root); (root, herb);
Market size: 1,700 hectares (world), 240 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 90-100 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or part sun
Soil: moist, wet or dry
Crop duration: 2-5 years
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Sowing rate: 600-900g/ha (indirect).
Planting: although seed can be sown direct, the high cost of seed dictates indirect sowing in plugs or seedbed and transplanting to field. Root cuttings (12,000/ha) of named cultivars (e.g. Bocking No. 14) recommended over seed.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 90cm within rows.
Yield: dry leaf 12t/ha (years 2-5), dry root 1,800kg/ha (year 3, 4 or 5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: comfrey rust.
Buyers want: low pyrrolizidine alkaloid content, particularly echimidine; leaf should be cut early to avoid alkaloid buildup.
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Sowing rate: 50-70g/1000plants.
Planting: sow S. officinale in plugs or seedflats 12-14 weeks before sale. S. x uplandicum and ornamental varieties are propagated by division or root cutting.
Seeds to saleable plants: 12 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, aphid
Diseases: comfrey rust.
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Coriander, Cilantro
(Coriandrum sativum) |
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Market
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Products: (seed); (herb); (seed, herb);
Market size: 600,000 hectares (world), 5,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 110-150 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun (seed), full or half sun (fresh herb)
Soil: deep, fertile, light or heavy, well-drained, pH 6.5-7.5
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 25 kg/ha (seed), 80 kg/ha (fresh herb).
Planting: for seed and seed oil production, sow direct in spring. For fresh herb (cilantro) and herb oil production sow early spring and fall; will bolt in hot weather.
Field spacing: 50-60cm between rows x 11-13cm between plants (seed), 20-25cm between rows x 8-10cm (fresh herb).
Yield: seed 900-1,500kg/ha, fresh herb 10-12t/ha, oil 1-9kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: thrip
Diseases: asters yellow, erysiphe powdery mildew, puccinia rust, pseudamonas, and sclerotina.
Buyers want: less than 12% moisture.
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Sowing rate: 200g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots; do not transplant – root disturbance causes plants to bolt early.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: aphid, thrip, mite, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Dandelion
(Taraxacum officinale) |
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Market
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Products: (root, herb); (leaf)
Market size: 7,000 hectares (world); 500 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 1200-1900 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: most soils
Crop duration: 2 years (root), 1-4 years (fresh leaf)
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Sowing rate: 1-3kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring or late summer. Fresh leaf gathered as vegetable spring, summer and fall. Herb for drying harvested spring or summer. Roots dug late fall.
Field spacing: 45cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: dry root 1100-1700kg/ha (year 2).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: water-soluble extractive not less than 30%.
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Dill
(Anethum graveolens, A. sowa ) |
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Market
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Products: (seed, herb); (leaf); (leaf, seed);
Market size: 37,000 hectares (world), 4,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices same, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 400-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, moderately rich, loose soil, pH 5.5-6.5
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 9-12 kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in spring.
Field spacing: 25-50cm between rows; thin to 10cm within rows for fresh herb production or 2-3cm within rows for seed production.
Yield: seed 600-900kg/ha, fresh herb 2500-5000kg/ha, dried herb 1000kg/ha, oil 50-110kg/ha.
Pests: aphid, tarnished plant bug
Diseases: powdery mildew, leafspot, aster yellows.
Buyers want: good green colour (dried leaf).
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Sowing rate: 15-40g/1000pots.
Planting: do not transplant; sow direct in pots, 8-20 seeds per pot.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: aphid
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Echinacea
(Echinacea purpurea, E. angustifolia, E. pallida ) |
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Market
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Products: (root, herb, flower, seed); (herb);
Market size: 16,000 hectares (world), 4,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices down, acreage up; market for E. purpurea herb is weak.
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Culture |
Seed density: 160-500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained, pH 6-7.5
Crop duration: 3-4 years
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Sowing rate: 14-18 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: E. purpurea seeds do not require pretreatment. Can be started in plugs and transplanted to the field, which is the preferred method, or can be sown direct in the field. Sow E. purpurea 100-120 days before field planting; sow E. angustifolia and E. pallida 150 days before planting. E. angustifolia and E. pallida germination benefits from pretreatment; stratify at 5°C for 4-12 weeks with light. Pretreatment with Ethrel (1 millimolar for 2 weeks), or with bleach (1% for 10 min.) improves E. angustifolia germination.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 20-45cm within rows.
Yield: E. purpurea herb 6,500-11,000kg/ha (years 2-4); E. purpurea root 1000kg/ha (year 4); E. angustifolia root 1100kg/ha (year 4); no data for E. pallida root.
Pests: leafhopper
Diseases: aster yellows (spread by leafhoppers), sclerotinia stem and root rot, botrytis.
Buyers want: certificate of botanical identity required for E. angustifolia; echinacoside 1.4% (roots).
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Sowing rate: 10g/1000plants.
Planting: sow 14 weeks (E. purpurea) to 22 weeks (E. angustifolia, E. pallida) before sale. Stratify or pretreat E. angustifolia and E. pallida seed before sowing (see above).
Seeds to finished plugs: 8-12 weeks (after pretreatment).
Plugs to saleable plants: 6-10 weeks.
Pests: few problems, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Elecampane
(Inula helenium ) |
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Market
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Products: (root); (root);
Market size: 800 hectares (world), 25 ha (North America).
Prospects: prices same, volume same
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Culture |
Seed density: 600-800 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: moist, deep, well-drained
Crop duration: 2 years.
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Sowing rate: 400-600g/ha (direct); 5g/1000plants (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing not recommended. Start in plugs 8 weeks before spring or late summer field planting.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 45cm within rows.
Yield: 2500kg/ha (year 2).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: erysiphe powdery mildew (late summer), ramularia leafspot, puccinia rust.
Buyers want: not less than 1.8% volatile oil, not more than 6-8% ash, not less than 27% water-soluble extractive, not more than 2% foreign matter.
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Sowing rate: 5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs, seedflats or seed beds. Germination in 4-7 days.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 2-6 weeks.
Pests: spider mite, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Fennel
(Foeniculum vulgare) |
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Market
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Products: (seed); (leaf, bulb); (herb);
Market size: 70,000 hectares (world), 7,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 200-300 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, deep, moderately fertile, pH 7-8.
Crop duration: 2-3 years (florence fennel, 1 year)
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Sowing rate: 4-6kg/ha (direct), 30g/1000plants (indirect).
Planting: sow sweet fennel direct; bronze direct or indirect; florence indirect.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: seed 1000-1600kg/ha (years 2-3), fresh herb 8-10t/ha (year 1-3), dried herb 1.5-2.5t/ha (year 1-3), seed oil 40-75kg/ha.
Pests: aphid, lygus tarnished plant bug
Diseases: sclerotinia stemrot, rhizoctonia damping-off, erwinia soft rot.
Buyers want: not less than 2-4% volatile oil.
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Sowing rate: 30g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots or in plugs. Does not transplant well; best to sow direct.
Seeds to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3 weeks.
Pests: aphid
Diseases: damping-off.
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Fenugreek
(Trigonella foenum-graecum) |
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Market
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Products: (seeds, leaf, herb); (herb, sprouts); (seed)
Market size: 90,000 hectares (world), 7,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 100 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, warm soil
Crop duration: 1 year.
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Sowing rate: 25-35kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in spring. Broadcast or in close rows.
Field spacing: 20cm between rows x 10-20cm within rows.
Yield: seed 700-900kg/ha, dried forage 2-10t/ha.
Pests: no data
Diseases: no data.
Buyers want: swelling index not less than 6, foreign matter not more than 2-5%, ash not more than 5-6% (seed).
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Feverfew
(Tanacetum parthenium) |
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Market
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Products: (herb);
Market size: 1,300 hectares (world), 160 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume down
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Culture |
Seed density: 7,500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained, dry soil
Crop duration: 1-2 years
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Sowing rate: 1-1.5 kg/ha (direct); 0.5g/1000plants.
Planting: plugs preferred over direct sowing because seeds very small. Sow plugs 8 weeks before spring planting date. Don't allow to go to seed to avoid winterkill. Frequent fertilization with low nitrogen fertilizer is beneficial. Long days trigger flowering. Short lived perennial; some growers treat as annual.
Field spacing: 20-90cm between rows x 10-20cm within rows.
Yield: 300-5000kg/ha (years 1-2).
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: minimum 0.4-0.8% parthenolide.
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Sowing rate: 0.5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow 14-16 weeks before sales in flats or plug trays.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6-8 weeks.
Pests: aphid, whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
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Scented Geranium
(Pelargonium spp. ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (leaf);
Market size: 4,000 hectares (world), 400 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 360-450 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, neutral to alkaline
Crop duration: 1 year temperate areas, 3-5 year in tropical areas.d o Planting: all commercially important varieties are propagated by cuttings. Plugs planted in spring after last frost date. FieldSpacing: 60-100cm between rows x 20-50cm within rows. Yield: fresh leaf 13-30t/ha, oil 13-17kg/ha (years 1-5). PestsDiseases: aphid, caterpillar / alternaria leaf spot.
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Seeds/ |
Planting: all commercially important varieties are propagated by cuttings. Plugs planted in spring after last frost date.
Field spacing: 60-100cm between rows x 20-50cm within rows.
Yield: fresh leaf 13-30t/ha, oil 13-17kg/ha (years 1-5).
Pests: aphid, caterpillar
Diseases: alternaria leaf spot.
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Sowing rate: 30-80g/1000 plants.
Planting: commercial propagation is by cutting only.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6-8 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, geranium and peach aphid, mite, mealybug, scale
Diseases: various leaf spots including xanthomonas, alternaria, botrytis.
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Gingko
(Ginkgo biloba ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (seed);
Market size: 5,000 hectares (world), 600 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 1 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: rich, well-drained, moist soil
Crop duration: 20-50+ years
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Sowing rate: 2-4kg/hectare.
Planting: seeds require stratification, 1-2 months warm, then 1-2 months cold, then sow in spring. Common nursery practice is to sow without stratification in outdoor seed beds in fall. Seedlings shaded for 2-3 years and fertilized with manure. Seedlings transplanted to permanent location when 7-8 years old. Trees kept short (2m) and spaced close (2-3m) in commercial plantations for medicinal leaf production; otherwise allowed to grow higher and spaced further for seed production. Slow growing. Leaves harvested in early fall as they begin to turn yellow; dried in sun. Fruits harvested late fall, seeds cleaned and roasted.
Field spacing: 3-5m apart (2-3m within rows for leaf production).
Yield: no data (leaf years 8-50, seed years 20-50).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: tolerates pollution.
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Sowing rate: 2-4kg/1000 plants.
Planting: stratify seed warm (1-2 months) followed by cold (1-2 months). Sow in deep plugs. Keep lightly shaded.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks to 1 year.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8 weeks (10cm pots), 2-5 years (larger plants).
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Ginseng
(Panax quinquefolius, P. ginseng; Eleutherococcus senticosus) |
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Market
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Products: (root)
Market size: Panax 70,000 hectares (world), 7,400 ha (North America)
Prospects: Panax prices down, volume up. Prospects for woodsgrown Panax much better than shadecloth grown.
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Culture |
Seed density: Panax 15; Eleutherococcus 100 seeds/gram
Exposure: Panax 70% shade; Eleutherococcus 30-50% shade
Soil: well-drained, sandy or clay loam, in raised beds, pH 5.5-6.0
Crop duration: Panax 3-4 years (shadecloth), 4-8 years (woodsgrown); Eleutherococcus 6-12 years
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Sowing rate: 40-100 kg/ha (shadecloth), 10-20 kg/ha (woodsgrown).
Planting: Panax seeds stratified one year. Sow stratified seeds in seedbeds and transplant seedlings to raised beds in years 1-2, or sow direct in raised beds. Mulch with straw. Remove shadecloth over winter. Eleutherococcus seeds need at least cycles of warm-cold stratification; best results obtained when sown in flats in fall and left out over winter under mulch.
Field spacing: Panax 15-20cm between rows x 15-20cm within rows, further apart in woodsgrown plantings; Eleutherococcus 60-100cm apart.
Yield: Panax (shadecloth) 3400kg/ha (years 3-4).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: Panax alternaria leaf blight, rhizoctonia wilt, phytophthora, powdery mildew; Eleutherococcus few problems.
Buyers want: ginsenosides not less than 1.5-2%, ash not more than 4-8%.
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Sowing rate: Panax 150g/1000 plants; Eleutherococcus 250g/1000plants.
Planting: sow stratified Panax seeds in deep plugs, 2-4 seeds per plug, or sow in seed flats. Provide shade, keep cool and well ventilated.
Seeds to finished plugs: Panax 6 months (after stratification).
Plugs to saleable plants: Panax 1 year.
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: Panax alternaria, rhizoctonia.
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Goldenseal
(Hydrastis canadensis) |
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Market
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Products: (root);
Market size: 17,000 hectares (world), 7,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices down, volume up. Majority of market supplied by wildcrafted material, but wild stocks are becoming depleted and now listed on CITES.
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Culture |
Seed density: 50-55 seeds/gram
Exposure: 50-75% Shade
Soil: well-drained, deep, fertile soil, pH 5.5-6.5, in raised beds or on gentle slope.
Crop duration: 3-6 years
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Sowing rate: 10kg/ha (direct), 100g/1000 plants (indirect); rootlets 100,000/ha.
Planting: growers prefer rootlets over seeds because they are more reliable and quicker to harvestable size (3 years); however, seed quality has improved recently and cost of seeds is much less than rootlets. Seeds take 5-6 years to get harvestable roots. Seeds must not dry out; must be sown immediately after harvest in late summer to come up following spring. Avoid straw mulch and fertilize lightly.
Field spacing: 15-40cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: 900-2300kg/ha (year 3-6).
Pests: slugs
Diseases: alternaria, phytophthora, rhizoctonia, botrytis leafspot, fusarium.
Buyers want: min. alkaloids 3.5%.
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Sowing rate: seed 100g/1000plants, rootlets 300-1000/1000 plants.
Planting: for potted plant production, best to start with rootlets. Pot up rootlets 4 weeks before sale. Provide cool, shaded, and well-ventilated conditions; will not tolerate full sun and high humidity.
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: alternaria and other diseases common in potted plants in greenhouses.
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Lavender
(Lavandula angustifolia, L. x intermedia) |
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Market
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Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 9,000 hectares (world), 1,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 850-1300 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained, deep, not too rich, pH 6.5-7.5
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 3-6kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: lavandins (L. x intermedia; e.g. 'Provence' and 'Grosso'), best for commercial flower and oil production, are propagated vegetatively only. Only english types are available in seed form, but seed grown material may not be uniform enough for field production. Direct sowing not recommended; germination is too slow (15-30 days). Sow in seedflats 12-16 weeks before outdoor planting; transplant to plugs at 4-6 weeks, then transplant to field.
Field spacing: 60-120cm between rows x 25-120cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 500-1500kg/ha (years 2-5), oil 8-32kg/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: caterpillar, nematode
Diseases: phoma scab, septoria leaf spot, armillaria root rot.
Buyers want: 1.3% volatile oil or higher, good colour.
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Sowing rate: 5-10g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow 20-26 weeks before sale. Germination of english types (L. angustifolia) is frequently below 50%; scarification or freezing of seedflat can sometimes improve germination.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12-16 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8-10 weeks.
Pests: mealybug, whitefly, spider mite, scale
Diseases: few problems.
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Lemongrass
(Cymbopogon citratus, C. flexuosus) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (stem); (herb);
Market size: 50,000 hectares (world), 2,600 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: C. flexuosus 2000-2400 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, sandy loam, pH 5.5-6.5
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: C. flexuosus 5-10kg/ha (direct).
Planting: C. citratus grown from cuttings only. Sow C. flexuosus in spring. Heavy feeder. Oil quality of C. citratus highest at 18-24 months.
Field spacing: C. citratus 100cm between rows x 45cm within rows; broadcast C. flexuosus, or sow in rows 60-100cm apart.
Yield: C. citratus dry herb 4-6t/ha, oil 30-40kg/ha (years 1-5); C. flexuosus dry herb 10-15t/ha, 80kg/ha (years 1-5).
Pests: no data
Diseases: C. citratus himantia web blight, myriogenospora tangletop, helminthosperium eyespot, papularia.
Buyers want: high citral content.
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Sowing rate: 5g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow C. flexuosus in plugs 13-14 weeks before sale. C. citratus grown from cuttings only.
Seeds to finished plugs: 10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3-8 weeks.
Pests: spider mite, whitefly, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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Licorice
(Glycyrrhiza spp. ) |
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Market
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Products: (root);
Market size: 45,000 hectares (world), 480 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices down, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 400-600 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: deep, rich, moist, sandy, slightly alkaline, pH 7.3-7.8
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 3-4 kg/ha (direct), 5-10g/1000 plants (indirect).
Planting: soak seeds 2-3 hours in 30°C water or scarify before planting to weaken hard seed coat. Sow direct in spring or in deep plugs 12-16 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 70-90cm between rows x 45-90cm within rows.
Yield: G. glabra dry root 10-20t/ha (year 3-5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: uromyces rust, cercospora blight.
Buyers want: minimum 4% glycyrrhizinic acid, minimum 20% water soluble extractive.
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Sowing rate: 5-10g/1000plants.
Planting: soak seed in warm water (30°C) for 2-3 hours or scarify before sowing. Sow in flats or deep plugs 22-26 weeks before sale. Highly susceptible to damping-off; preventative application of damping-off control recommended.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12-16 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: damping-off.
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Lobelia
(Lobelia inflata ) |
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Market
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Products: (seed, herb);
Market size: 9,000 hectares (world), 1,700 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 30,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, rich soil
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 0.2-1kg/ha (direct), 0.1kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow in plugs or seedflats 12 weeks before field planting. Harvest herb when upper flowers are in bloom and lowest flowers have developed seed capsules when lobeline and lobelidine alkaloid content highest.
Field spacing: 30cm between rows x 15cm within rows.
Yield: dry herb 1100kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: wireworms
Diseases: cercospora, phyllosticta and septoria leaf spots.
Buyers want: no data.
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Sowing rate: 0.5g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow in plugs 14 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4-6 weeks.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
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Marjoram
(Origanum majorana) |
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Market
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Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 12,000 hectares (world), 800 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 3,500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, pH 6.5-7.5
Crop duration: 1 year (2-3 years in zone 9+)
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Sowing rate: 5-6kg/ha (direct), 0.2-0.3kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: requires warmth to do well; germinates best above 15°C daytime and 10°C nighttime. Sow direct in warmer zones; or sow indirect in plugs 12 weeks before field planting in cooler zones.
Field spacing: 30-40cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: 2.5-3t/ha (years 1-3).
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: botrytis gray mold, alternaria, puccinia rust, septoria.
Buyers want: no data.
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Sowing rate: 1g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or direct in pots 6-8 weeks before sale. Minimum 15°C days, 10°C nights.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 2-4 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite, thrip
Diseases: few problems.
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Chinese Milkvetch, Astragalus
(Astragalus membranaceus) |
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Market
|
Products: (root);
Market size: 1,700 hectares (world), 560 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 130-160 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, deep, moist, alkaline
Crop duration: 4-5 years
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Sowing rate: 6-8 kg/ha (direct), 3-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: can be started in deep plugs, but suffers transplant shock easily. Probably better to sow direct in field, in early spring or fall. Scarification helps speed germination. Harvested in fall, lateral roots trimmed, dried partially and then sliced 0.5 cm thick, and then further dried.
Field spacing: 75-100cm between rows x 25cm within rows.
Yield: 7000kg/ha (year 4-5).
Pests: no data
Diseases: unidentified root rot when in wet conditions.
Buyers want: no data.
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|
Sowing rate: 75g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow in deep plugs 19-20 weeks before sale; transplant before plugs are root-bound. Highly susceptible to mites.
Seeds to finished plugs: 10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 9 weeks.
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: damping-off.
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Mint
(Mentha spp.) |
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Market
|
Products: (leaf, herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 240,000 hectares (world), 16,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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|
Culture |
Seed density: 17,000-20,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: rich, moist, well-drained, pH 6.5-7
Crop duration: 2-3 years
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|
Sowing rate: 1 kg/ha (direct), 0.1-0.2kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: commercial plantings propagated vegetatively; seed not suitable because of poor oil quality. Root cuttings planted in early spring or fall. Fields must be rotated every 2-3 years to prevent disease buildup.
Field spacing: 40-90cm between rows x 15-45cm within rows.
Yield: peppermint herb oil 35-125kg/ha, fresh herb 10-25t/ha, dried herb 1-3t/ha (years 2-3).
Pests: nematode, aphid
Diseases: puccinia rust, verticillum wilt, leaf spot, sphaceloma spot anthracnose.
Buyers want: peppermint minimum 1-1.2% volatile oil, not more than 10% leaves spotted with puccinia rust, not more than 5% stems, 2% foreign matter or 11% water.
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Sowing rate: 0.5-1g/1000 plants.
Planting: most cultivars grown from cuttings. Seed material not recommended for pot plant sales.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite, aphid, mealybug
Diseases: rust.
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Nettle
(Urtica dioica ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (herb, root, leaf, seed);
Market size: 1,600 hectares (world), 240 ha (North America)
Prospects: Prices stable, volume stable
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|
Culture |
Seed density: 6,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun or part shade
Soil: rich, moist, pH 6-7
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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|
Sowing rate: 5kg/ha (direct), 0.6kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow in plugs 12 weeks before field planting, or direct in spring.
Field spacing: 30cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: 1000-2000kg/ha (years 3-5).
Pests: no data
Diseases: no data.
Buyers want: maximum 10% stems, 2% other foreign matter, total ash 20%, acid-insoluble ash 4%.
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|
Sowing rate: 2g/1000 plants (indirect).
Planting: sow in plugs 18 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: spider mite, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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| |
Oregano
(Origanum spp. ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 8,000 hectares (world), 2,400 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up Varieties: most oregano is wildcrafted in Europe. In North America, much of the oregano is Lippia graveolens, the mexican variety.
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|
Culture |
Seed density: 3800-4500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, sandy, dry, pH 6-8
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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|
Sowing rate: 2.5-3kg/ha (direct), 0.2-0.5kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: greek variety is best for commercial fresh and dry herb and oil production. Sow direct in spring when soil temperature is at least 15°C, or sow in plugs 6 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 30-40cm between rows x 7-15cm within rows.
Yield: dry herb 1000-3000kg/ha, fresh herb 10-20t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: unspecified fungal diseases can occur in wet weather.
Buyers want: strong scent, good green colour.
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|
Sowing rate: 0.5-1g/1000 plants.
Planting: most varieties cannot be grown from seeds; only greek variety is raised from seed commercially. Sow in plugs 12 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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| |
Parsley
(Petroselinum crispum) |
|
Market
|
Products: (leaf); (leaf, root);
Market size: 250,000 hectares (world), 25,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 650-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: tolerates most soils, but rich, well-drained, moist, pH 6-7 is best
Crop duration: 1 year
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|
|
Sowing rate: 3-7 kg/ha (direct), 0.5-1.5kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field early spring or fall in warmer zones. Two or three cuts are possible.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 10-20cm within rows.
Yield: fresh herb 5-10t/ha, dry herb 1-2t/ha (year 1).
Pests: carrot root fly
Diseases: septoria and alternaria leaf spot.
Buyers want: good green colour (dry and fresh herb).
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|
Sowing rate: 2-4g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or direct in pots. Sow 4-5 seeds per plug or 12 per pot.
Seeds to saleable plants: 12 weeks.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite, aphid
Diseases: few problems.
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| |
Chile Pepper
(Capsicum annuum, C. spp.) |
|
Market
|
Products: (fruit); (fruit);
Market size: 100,000 hectares (world), 10,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 80-250 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained, loam, pH 6.5-7.5
Crop duration: 1 year
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|
|
Sowing rate: 10kg/ha (direct), 0.5-1kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: should not follow in soils where pepper, eggplant, tobacco, potato, tomato and other Solanaceae were grown previously. Needs 21-30°C to do well. Minimum 16°C soil temperature required for germination In cooler temperate zones. Sow in flats or plugs 8-12 weeks before spring field planting. In warmer zones (e.g. southern U.S.), can be sown direct in field. Cultivation similar to bell peppers, except longer, warmer season required (65-80 days). Easily killed by frost. Excess nitrogen feeding will reduce fruit production. Irrigation necessary in drier areas; can improve yields 6-fold.
Field spacing: 90-130cm between rows x 30-60cm within rows.
Yield: fresh fruit 8-15t/ha, dry fruit 2t/ha (year 1).
Pests: aphid, ground beetle, pepper weevil
Diseases: xanthomonas bacterial spot, anthracnose, and many others.
Buyers want: varies greatly depending on the market.
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|
|
Sowing rate: 10-25g/1000plants.
Planting: sow 10-12 weeks before sale. Sow in flats or plugs. Mostly sold in 4- or 6-packs in spring like bedding annuals, or in pots.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite, aphid
Diseases: few problems.
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| |
Rosemary
(Rosmarinus officinalis ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (leaf); (leaf); (herb);
Market size: Most commercial product is from wildcrafted sources. Cultivated acreage is 200 hectares (North America); world acreage unknown
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained; pH 6.0-7.5
Crop duration: 10-20 years
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|
|
Sowing rate: 1.5-3 kg/ha (direct), 0.2-0.6kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing not recommended because seeds are slow to germinate and seedlings are slow to establish. Sow in seedflats 20 weeks before field spring planting. Germination can be enhanced by exposing seedflat to 24-27°C for 1 week and then lower to 18°C for germination. Where rosemary is not hardy growers dig up plants and overwinter in cool greenhouses. Named cultivars must be grown from cuttings; seed only available for standard species.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 25-50cm within rows.
Yield: fresh herb 2000kg/ha (years 2-20).
Pests: no data
Diseases: root rot.
Buyers want: dried leaf minimum volatile oil 1.2%, maximum foreign matter 10%, maximum woody stems 2%, maximum ash 7%.
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|
|
Sowing rate: 10-15g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow in seedflats 22 weeks before sale in 10cm pots.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, scale, mealybug
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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| |
Sage
(Salvia officinalis ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (herb); (herb, sprouts); (herb);
Market size: 160,000 hectares (world), 2,400 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 125 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, rich, light or heavy, pH 6-6.5
Crop duration: 4-5 years
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 5-15 kg/ha (direct), 0.5-2kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring or sow in plugs 8 weeks before field planting. Trim plants to 15 cm in early spring to encourage new shoots. 'Die-back' occurs in heavy soils that do not drain well.
Field spacing: 50-75cm between rows x 30-50cm within rows.
Yield: dresh herb 10-20t/ha, dry herb 2.5-5t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: few problems with pests
Diseases: verticillium wilt, oidium powdery mildew.
Buyers want: minimum volatile oil 1.5%, maximum ash 8-12%, maximum foreign matter 3%.
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|
Sowing rate: 20-30g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or flats 12-14 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4-6 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite, mealybug
Diseases: damping-off, powdery mildew.
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| |
St. Johnswort
(Hypericum perfoliatum ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (herb); (herb);
Market size: 2,400 hectares (world), 800 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices down, volume down
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 7,000-10,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, dry, pH 6-7
Crop duration: 2-3 years
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|
|
Sowing rate: 1-1.5kg/ha (direct), 0.1-0.5kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing has been tried with success, but seedlings are slow to establish and weed control is a problem. Sow direct in field in spring. Or, sow indirect in plugs 8 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 20-90cm between rows x 20-30cm within rows.
Yield: 1000-1200kg/ha (years 2-3).
Pests: chrysolina beetle, nematode
Diseases: colletotrichum anthracnose. Chrysolina beetle has become a serious problem is some areas after several years of cultivation. Serious anthracnose damage has been reported in areas where St. Johnswort has been cultivated for several years. There is evidence of a correlation between chrysolina infestation and anthracnose.
Buyers want: minimum 0.3% hypericin, maximum 5-8% ash, 2% foreign matter, 10% loss on drying.
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|
Sowing rate: 2g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs 10-12 weeks prior to sale. anthracnose disease (reddening of foliage and dieback) is a serious problem in plug production; avoid overwatering and watering late in day. Anthracnose spreads by unknown vector; may be insect or splashing water.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 2-4 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: colletotrichum anthracnose.
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Savory
(Satureja hortensis, S. montana) |
|
Market
|
Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 800 hectares (world), 320 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 1700-2600 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained
Crop duration: S. hortensis 1 year; S. montana 3-6 years
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Sowing rate: S. hortensis 6-20 kg/ha (direct); S. montana 6 kg/ha (direct), 0.2-1kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in spring. S. montana best sown in plugs 8 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: S. hortensis 15-90cm between rows x 15-20cm within rows; S. montana 30-60cm x 17-20cm.
Yield: S. hortensis dry herb 2500-5000kg/ha, oil 30kg/ha (year 1); S. montana dry herb 1-3t/ha (years 2-6).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: No data.
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|
|
Sowing rate: 2-5g/1000plants.
Planting: S. hortensis can be sown direct in pots, 6 weeks before sale. Sow S. montana in plugs 12 weeks before sale.
Seeds to saleable plants: S. hortensis 6 weeks.
Seeds to finished plugs: S. montana 4-6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: S. montana 8 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite, aphid
Diseases: few problems.
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| |
Alfalfa
(Medicago sativa ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (seeds, leaf, herb); (herb, sprouts)
Market size: (excluding acreage planted for fodder): 12,000 hectares (world); 5,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices and acreage up
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|
Culture |
Seed density: 350 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained; pH 6.0-7.5
Crop duration: 1-4 years
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|
(herb) |
Sowing rate: 9-13kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring, broadcast or sow in rows, 15-30cm apart. Two or more cuts at bud stage possible; last cut 6 weeks before killing frost. Heavy potash and phosphorus feeder.
Yield: dry herb 8-10,000kg/ha (years 1-4).
Pests: weevil, leafminer, leafhopper, snout beetle
Diseases: verticillium wilt, leafspot, phytophthora root rot.
Buyers want: organic product.
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(sprouts) |
Planting: soak seeds overnight; drain, keep moist. Ready in 3-5 days.
Yield: 4kg(sprouts)/kg(seeds).
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| |
Arnica
(A. montana, A. chamissonis) |
|
Market
|
Products: (flower, root); (flower);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 160 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume down
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|
Culture |
Seed density: 700-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, humus-rich, pH 7 (A. chamissonis), pH 4.5-6 (A. montana)
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 1-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing not recommended. Sow in seedflats or plugs. Sow A. montana 16-20 weeks before transplanting to field; sow A. chamissonis 12 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 15-60cm between rows x 15-20cm within rows.
Harvest: flower (years 2-5), root (year 3 or 4).
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: chlorosis (yellow leaves) in A. montana caused by alkaline soil.
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|
Sowing rate: 8-10g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in seedflats or plugs 20 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8 weeks.
Pests: few problems, whitefly occasionally
Diseases: few problems.
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| |
Lemon Balm
(Melissa officinalis) |
|
Market
|
Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 75 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 2000 seeds/gram
Exposure: sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained clay or sandy loam, pH 6 to 7.5
Crop duration: 2-4 years
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|
|
Sowing rate: 7-9kg/ha (direct), 250-400g/ha (indirect, in plugs).
Planting: sowing in plugs in greenhouse in early spring till mid-summer is most common method; sow 6-8 weeks before transplanting to field. Direct sowing is not as common because weed control is more difficult; sow in early spring or late fall (to come up next spring).
Field spacing: 50-75cm between rows x 18-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry herb 5000kg/ha, fresh herb 10-25t/ha (years 1-3).
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: erisyphe powdery mildew, septoria blight, puccinia rust.
Buyers want: dry carefully to conserve oil in dried herb.
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|
Sowing rate: 3-5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in flats or plugs 11-14 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spidermite, thrip
Diseases: mildew.
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| |
Basil
(Ocimum basilicum, and others ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (leaf, herb); (herb); (oil);
Market size: 10,000 hectares (world), 1,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 500-1000 (O. gratissimum 2600, O. kilamandscharicum 2800, O. sanctum 1500-2500) seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: rich, well-drained
Crop duration: 1 year (O. basilicum), 1-3 years (others)
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|
Sowing rate: 20kg/ha (direct); 3-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in spring when nighttime temperatures exceed 10°C; or sow in flats or plugs 8 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 15-25cm within rows.
Yield: fresh herb 15,000kg/ha, dry herb 1,500-2,000kg/ha, oil 30kg/ha (year 1)
Pests: aphids, thrips
Diseases: O. basilicum varieties are highly susceptible to fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum) disease. Disease persists in soil for several years. Commercial field plantings should be sown with fusarium-tolerant Nufar F1. Hydroponic operations may choose fusarium-free varieties if equipment and facilities are free of fusarium (spreads by contaminated seeds and equipment). Other basil species (e.g. O. americanum and O. gratissimum) are fusarium-tolerant.
Buyers want: not less than 0.4% essential oil in dried product.
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|
Sowing rate: 3-4g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in final pots, or in plugs and later transplant to final pots. Nighttime temperature must not go below 10°C.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, thrips, aphids
Diseases: fusarium (see above).
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| |
Bay Laurel
(Laurus nobilis ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (leaf); (leaf);
Market size: 2,000 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 1 seeds/gram
Exposure: sheltered position in full or half sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, moist
Crop duration: 20-50 years
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|
Sowing rate: 30-60kg/ha
Planting: sow stratified seeds in beds or flats.
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: leaves dried flat for visual appearance.
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|
|
Sowing rate: 5kg/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or flats in March or April.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks (after stratification).
Plugs to saleable plants: 10 weeks to a year.
Pests: whitefly, scale, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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| |
Borage
(Borago officinalis ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (seed, herb, flower, root); (herb, flower, root), (seed);
Market size: 5,000 hectares (world); 2,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, acreage up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 50 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: best in well-drained, fertile, moist soil, but tolerates most soils, pH 5-8
Crop duration: 1 year
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 5-17 kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in late spring in rows 45-90cm apart, 30-45cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 300kg/ha; fresh flower 1,000-5,000kg/ha; seed 90-450kg/ha.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: 24% gamma lineolenic acid content in seed oil.
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|
|
Sowing rate: 50-80g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots or plugs.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
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| |
Burdock
(Arctium lappa) |
|
Market
|
Products: (root, leaf); (root);
Market size: 3,000 hectares (world), 170 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 60-110 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or part sun
Soil: deep, loose, humus-rich, pH 6-8
Crop duration: 1-2 years
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 4 kg/ha (direct), 1.5kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring. Or, sow in beds or plugs and transplant to field in spring. For use as fresh vegetable, dig first year roots when young and tender at 3-5 months. For dry root production, dig in fall of second year.
Field spacing: 45-90cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry root 2,000kg/ha (years 2 or 3).
Pests: few problems, grasshopper
Diseases: few problems.
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|
|
Sowing rate: 20g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs 9-10 weeks before sale.
Seeds to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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| |
Calendula
(C. officinalis) |
|
Market
|
Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 880 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 150 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained; can tolerate poor soil with low nitrogen.
Crop duration: 1 year
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 3-9kg/ha (direct), 1kg/ha (indirect in plugs).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring or autumn; or sow in plugs 4-6 weeks before field planting. Seeds need light to germinate; cover seeds lightly or press in soil only.
Field spacing: 20-70cm between rows x 10-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 1-2,000kg/ha, fresh flower 6-9,000kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: blister-beetle, cabbage-looper, caterpillar, leafhopper
Diseases: leaf spot, aster-yellows.
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|
|
Sowing rate: 15g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or direct in pots 10-12 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 4-6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, aphid, thrip, mealybug
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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|
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| |
Caraway
(Carum carvi) |
|
Market
|
Products: (seed); (seed)
Market size: 19,000 hectares (world), 2,500 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 350-400 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, pH 6-7.8.
Crop duration: 1-2 years (depending on variety)
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 8-11 kg/ha.
Planting: sow standard biennial type direct in field late June or early July; harvest following year in August. Sow annual type in May (suited for warmer regions with 5-6 frost-free months). Sometimes sown with annual cover crops such as coriander, dill, mustard the first year.
Field spacing: 10-50cm between rows x 4-15cm within rows.
Yield: seed 600-3,000kg/ha, oil 4.5-7kg/ha (year 1 or 2, depending on variety).
Pests: leafhopper
Diseases: aster yellows.
Buyers want: seed minimum 3% oil, maximum 12% moisture.
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| |
Catnip
(Nepeta cataria ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (herb, leaf);
Market size: 2,400 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 1500-1600 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or partial sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, sandy, pH 6.5
Crop duration: 2-5 years
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 12 kg/ha (direct), 1kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring or late fall. Or, sow in plugs 8-10 weeks before field planting. Seed needs light to germinate; sow shallow 2-4mm deep.
Field spacing: 45-90cm between rows x 30-40cm within rows.
Harvest: leaf, herb (years 2-5).
Yield: dry herb 3-6t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 3g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or seedflats 12-15 weeks before sale. Sow 2-4mm deep.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8-10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3-5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
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Chamomile
(Matricaria recutita, Chamaemelum nobile ) |
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Market
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Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 40,000 hectares (world), 4,800 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 10,000-18,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained, moist to dry
Crop duration: 1 year (M. recutita), 2-3 years (C. nobile)
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Sowing rate: 3-4 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect)
Planting: german (M. recutita) is sown direct in field in spring or fall. Fall sowings germinate following spring. Roman (C. nobile) is sown direct or indirect in plugs which are later planted in field. Surface sow only (needs light to germinate). Hand harvesting flowers problematic in areas where labour cost is high; mechanical harvesting still unproven.
Field spacing: 10-50cm between rows x 10-25cm within rows, or broadcast sown.
Yield: dry flower 350-500kg/ha (M. recutita; year 1), 600-1000 kg/ha (C. nobile; years 1-3).
Pests: cnephasia moth
Diseases: aster yellows.
Buyers want: 0.4% or more volatile oil.
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Sowing rate: 1g/1000plants.
Planting: german (M. recutita) not normally sold in pots; roman (C. nobile) and its varieties are sold in pots or plugs. Seeds need light to germinate; surface sow only.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4-6 weeks.
Pests: aphid, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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Chives
(Allium schoenoprasum, A. tuberosum ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf, flower); (leaf, flower);
Market size: 24,000 hectares (world), 3,200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 750 (A. schoenoprasum), 200-300 (A. tuberosum) seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, humus-rich
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 2-3 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring, or sow indirect in plugs 12-16 weeks before field planting. Field must be free of quackgrass otherwise harvests will be contaminated.
Field spacing: 30cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: fresh leaf 10-20t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: aphid
Diseases: puccinia rust, downy mildew.
Buyers want: good green colour (dry leaf).
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Sowing rate: 5-20g/1000plants (A. schoenoprasum), 50g/1000plants (A. tuberosum)
Planting: sow 10-15 seeds per plug or pot, or sow same amount direct in pots.
Seeds to saleable plants: 24-30 weeks.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12-16 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 11 weeks.
Pests: aphid, thrip
Diseases: few problems.
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Comfrey
(Symphytum officinale, S. x uplandicum) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf, root); (root, herb);
Market size: 1,700 hectares (world), 240 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 90-100 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or part sun
Soil: moist, wet or dry
Crop duration: 2-5 years
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Sowing rate: 600-900g/ha (indirect).
Planting: although seed can be sown direct, the high cost of seed dictates indirect sowing in plugs or seedbed and transplanting to field. Root cuttings (12,000/ha) of named cultivars (e.g. Bocking No. 14) recommended over seed.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 90cm within rows.
Yield: dry leaf 12t/ha (years 2-5), dry root 1,800kg/ha (year 3, 4 or 5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: comfrey rust.
Buyers want: low pyrrolizidine alkaloid content, particularly echimidine; leaf should be cut early to avoid alkaloid buildup.
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Sowing rate: 50-70g/1000plants.
Planting: sow S. officinale in plugs or seedflats 12-14 weeks before sale. S. x uplandicum and ornamental varieties are propagated by division or root cutting.
Seeds to saleable plants: 12 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, aphid
Diseases: comfrey rust.
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Coriander, Cilantro
(Coriandrum sativum) |
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Market
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Products: (seed); (herb); (seed, herb);
Market size: 600,000 hectares (world), 5,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 110-150 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun (seed), full or half sun (fresh herb)
Soil: deep, fertile, light or heavy, well-drained, pH 6.5-7.5
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 25 kg/ha (seed), 80 kg/ha (fresh herb).
Planting: for seed and seed oil production, sow direct in spring. For fresh herb (cilantro) and herb oil production sow early spring and fall; will bolt in hot weather.
Field spacing: 50-60cm between rows x 11-13cm between plants (seed), 20-25cm between rows x 8-10cm (fresh herb).
Yield: seed 900-1,500kg/ha, fresh herb 10-12t/ha, oil 1-9kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: thrip
Diseases: asters yellow, erysiphe powdery mildew, puccinia rust, pseudamonas, and sclerotina.
Buyers want: less than 12% moisture.
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Sowing rate: 200g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots; do not transplant – root disturbance causes plants to bolt early.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: aphid, thrip, mite, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Dandelion
(Taraxacum officinale) |
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Market
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Products: (root, herb); (leaf)
Market size: 7,000 hectares (world); 500 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 1200-1900 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: most soils
Crop duration: 2 years (root), 1-4 years (fresh leaf)
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Sowing rate: 1-3kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring or late summer. Fresh leaf gathered as vegetable spring, summer and fall. Herb for drying harvested spring or summer. Roots dug late fall.
Field spacing: 45cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: dry root 1100-1700kg/ha (year 2).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: water-soluble extractive not less than 30%.
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Dill
(Anethum graveolens, A. sowa ) |
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Market
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Products: (seed, herb); (leaf); (leaf, seed);
Market size: 37,000 hectares (world), 4,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices same, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 400-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, moderately rich, loose soil, pH 5.5-6.5
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 9-12 kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in spring.
Field spacing: 25-50cm between rows; thin to 10cm within rows for fresh herb production or 2-3cm within rows for seed production.
Yield: seed 600-900kg/ha, fresh herb 2500-5000kg/ha, dried herb 1000kg/ha, oil 50-110kg/ha.
Pests: aphid, tarnished plant bug
Diseases: powdery mildew, leafspot, aster yellows.
Buyers want: good green colour (dried leaf).
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Sowing rate: 15-40g/1000pots.
Planting: do not transplant; sow direct in pots, 8-20 seeds per pot.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: aphid
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Echinacea
(Echinacea purpurea, E. angustifolia, E. pallida ) |
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Market
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Products: (root, herb, flower, seed); (herb);
Market size: 16,000 hectares (world), 4,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices down, acreage up; market for E. purpurea herb is weak.
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Culture |
Seed density: 160-500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained, pH 6-7.5
Crop duration: 3-4 years
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Sowing rate: 14-18 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: E. purpurea seeds do not require pretreatment. Can be started in plugs and transplanted to the field, which is the preferred method, or can be sown direct in the field. Sow E. purpurea 100-120 days before field planting; sow E. angustifolia and E. pallida 150 days before planting. E. angustifolia and E. pallida germination benefits from pretreatment; stratify at 5°C for 4-12 weeks with light. Pretreatment with Ethrel (1 millimolar for 2 weeks), or with bleach (1% for 10 min.) improves E. angustifolia germination.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 20-45cm within rows.
Yield: E. purpurea herb 6,500-11,000kg/ha (years 2-4); E. purpurea root 1000kg/ha (year 4); E. angustifolia root 1100kg/ha (year 4); no data for E. pallida root.
Pests: leafhopper
Diseases: aster yellows (spread by leafhoppers), sclerotinia stem and root rot, botrytis.
Buyers want: certificate of botanical identity required for E. angustifolia; echinacoside 1.4% (roots).
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Sowing rate: 10g/1000plants.
Planting: sow 14 weeks (E. purpurea) to 22 weeks (E. angustifolia, E. pallida) before sale. Stratify or pretreat E. angustifolia and E. pallida seed before sowing (see above).
Seeds to finished plugs: 8-12 weeks (after pretreatment).
Plugs to saleable plants: 6-10 weeks.
Pests: few problems, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Elecampane
(Inula helenium ) |
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Market
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Products: (root); (root);
Market size: 800 hectares (world), 25 ha (North America).
Prospects: prices same, volume same
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Culture |
Seed density: 600-800 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: moist, deep, well-drained
Crop duration: 2 years.
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Sowing rate: 400-600g/ha (direct); 5g/1000plants (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing not recommended. Start in plugs 8 weeks before spring or late summer field planting.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 45cm within rows.
Yield: 2500kg/ha (year 2).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: erysiphe powdery mildew (late summer), ramularia leafspot, puccinia rust.
Buyers want: not less than 1.8% volatile oil, not more than 6-8% ash, not less than 27% water-soluble extractive, not more than 2% foreign matter.
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Sowing rate: 5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs, seedflats or seed beds. Germination in 4-7 days.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 2-6 weeks.
Pests: spider mite, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Fennel
(Foeniculum vulgare) |
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Market
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Products: (seed); (leaf, bulb); (herb);
Market size: 70,000 hectares (world), 7,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 200-300 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, deep, moderately fertile, pH 7-8.
Crop duration: 2-3 years (florence fennel, 1 year)
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Sowing rate: 4-6kg/ha (direct), 30g/1000plants (indirect).
Planting: sow sweet fennel direct; bronze direct or indirect; florence indirect.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: seed 1000-1600kg/ha (years 2-3), fresh herb 8-10t/ha (year 1-3), dried herb 1.5-2.5t/ha (year 1-3), seed oil 40-75kg/ha.
Pests: aphid, lygus tarnished plant bug
Diseases: sclerotinia stemrot, rhizoctonia damping-off, erwinia soft rot.
Buyers want: not less than 2-4% volatile oil.
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Sowing rate: 30g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots or in plugs. Does not transplant well; best to sow direct.
Seeds to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3 weeks.
Pests: aphid
Diseases: damping-off.
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Fenugreek
(Trigonella foenum-graecum) |
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Market
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Products: (seeds, leaf, herb); (herb, sprouts); (seed)
Market size: 90,000 hectares (world), 7,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 100 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, warm soil
Crop duration: 1 year.
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Sowing rate: 25-35kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in spring. Broadcast or in close rows.
Field spacing: 20cm between rows x 10-20cm within rows.
Yield: seed 700-900kg/ha, dried forage 2-10t/ha.
Pests: no data
Diseases: no data.
Buyers want: swelling index not less than 6, foreign matter not more than 2-5%, ash not more than 5-6% (seed).
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Feverfew
(Tanacetum parthenium) |
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Market
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Products: (herb);
Market size: 1,300 hectares (world), 160 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume down
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Culture |
Seed density: 7,500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained, dry soil
Crop duration: 1-2 years
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Sowing rate: 1-1.5 kg/ha (direct); 0.5g/1000plants.
Planting: plugs preferred over direct sowing because seeds very small. Sow plugs 8 weeks before spring planting date. Don't allow to go to seed to avoid winterkill. Frequent fertilization with low nitrogen fertilizer is beneficial. Long days trigger flowering. Short lived perennial; some growers treat as annual.
Field spacing: 20-90cm between rows x 10-20cm within rows.
Yield: 300-5000kg/ha (years 1-2).
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: minimum 0.4-0.8% parthenolide.
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Sowing rate: 0.5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow 14-16 weeks before sales in flats or plug trays.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6-8 weeks.
Pests: aphid, whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
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Scented Geranium
(Pelargonium spp. ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (leaf);
Market size: 4,000 hectares (world), 400 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 360-450 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, neutral to alkaline
Crop duration: 1 year temperate areas, 3-5 year in tropical areas.d o Planting: all commercially important varieties are propagated by cuttings. Plugs planted in spring after last frost date. FieldSpacing: 60-100cm between rows x 20-50cm within rows. Yield: fresh leaf 13-30t/ha, oil 13-17kg/ha (years 1-5). PestsDiseases: aphid, caterpillar / alternaria leaf spot.
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Seeds/ |
Planting: all commercially important varieties are propagated by cuttings. Plugs planted in spring after last frost date.
Field spacing: 60-100cm between rows x 20-50cm within rows.
Yield: fresh leaf 13-30t/ha, oil 13-17kg/ha (years 1-5).
Pests: aphid, caterpillar
Diseases: alternaria leaf spot.
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Sowing rate: 30-80g/1000 plants.
Planting: commercial propagation is by cutting only.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6-8 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, geranium and peach aphid, mite, mealybug, scale
Diseases: various leaf spots including xanthomonas, alternaria, botrytis.
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Gingko
(Ginkgo biloba ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (seed);
Market size: 5,000 hectares (world), 600 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 1 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: rich, well-drained, moist soil
Crop duration: 20-50+ years
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Sowing rate: 2-4kg/hectare.
Planting: seeds require stratification, 1-2 months warm, then 1-2 months cold, then sow in spring. Common nursery practice is to sow without stratification in outdoor seed beds in fall. Seedlings shaded for 2-3 years and fertilized with manure. Seedlings transplanted to permanent location when 7-8 years old. Trees kept short (2m) and spaced close (2-3m) in commercial plantations for medicinal leaf production; otherwise allowed to grow higher and spaced further for seed production. Slow growing. Leaves harvested in early fall as they begin to turn yellow; dried in sun. Fruits harvested late fall, seeds cleaned and roasted.
Field spacing: 3-5m apart (2-3m within rows for leaf production).
Yield: no data (leaf years 8-50, seed years 20-50).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: tolerates pollution.
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Sowing rate: 2-4kg/1000 plants.
Planting: stratify seed warm (1-2 months) followed by cold (1-2 months). Sow in deep plugs. Keep lightly shaded.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks to 1 year.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8 weeks (10cm pots), 2-5 years (larger plants).
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Ginseng
(Panax quinquefolius, P. ginseng; Eleutherococcus senticosus) |
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Market
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Products: (root)
Market size: Panax 70,000 hectares (world), 7,400 ha (North America)
Prospects: Panax prices down, volume up. Prospects for woodsgrown Panax much better than shadecloth grown.
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Culture |
Seed density: Panax 15; Eleutherococcus 100 seeds/gram
Exposure: Panax 70% shade; Eleutherococcus 30-50% shade
Soil: well-drained, sandy or clay loam, in raised beds, pH 5.5-6.0
Crop duration: Panax 3-4 years (shadecloth), 4-8 years (woodsgrown); Eleutherococcus 6-12 years
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Sowing rate: 40-100 kg/ha (shadecloth), 10-20 kg/ha (woodsgrown).
Planting: Panax seeds stratified one year. Sow stratified seeds in seedbeds and transplant seedlings to raised beds in years 1-2, or sow direct in raised beds. Mulch with straw. Remove shadecloth over winter. Eleutherococcus seeds need at least cycles of warm-cold stratification; best results obtained when sown in flats in fall and left out over winter under mulch.
Field spacing: Panax 15-20cm between rows x 15-20cm within rows, further apart in woodsgrown plantings; Eleutherococcus 60-100cm apart.
Yield: Panax (shadecloth) 3400kg/ha (years 3-4).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: Panax alternaria leaf blight, rhizoctonia wilt, phytophthora, powdery mildew; Eleutherococcus few problems.
Buyers want: ginsenosides not less than 1.5-2%, ash not more than 4-8%.
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Sowing rate: Panax 150g/1000 plants; Eleutherococcus 250g/1000plants.
Planting: sow stratified Panax seeds in deep plugs, 2-4 seeds per plug, or sow in seed flats. Provide shade, keep cool and well ventilated.
Seeds to finished plugs: Panax 6 months (after stratification).
Plugs to saleable plants: Panax 1 year.
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: Panax alternaria, rhizoctonia.
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Goldenseal
(Hydrastis canadensis) |
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Market
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Products: (root);
Market size: 17,000 hectares (world), 7,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices down, volume up. Majority of market supplied by wildcrafted material, but wild stocks are becoming depleted and now listed on CITES.
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Culture |
Seed density: 50-55 seeds/gram
Exposure: 50-75% Shade
Soil: well-drained, deep, fertile soil, pH 5.5-6.5, in raised beds or on gentle slope.
Crop duration: 3-6 years
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Sowing rate: 10kg/ha (direct), 100g/1000 plants (indirect); rootlets 100,000/ha.
Planting: growers prefer rootlets over seeds because they are more reliable and quicker to harvestable size (3 years); however, seed quality has improved recently and cost of seeds is much less than rootlets. Seeds take 5-6 years to get harvestable roots. Seeds must not dry out; must be sown immediately after harvest in late summer to come up following spring. Avoid straw mulch and fertilize lightly.
Field spacing: 15-40cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: 900-2300kg/ha (year 3-6).
Pests: slugs
Diseases: alternaria, phytophthora, rhizoctonia, botrytis leafspot, fusarium.
Buyers want: min. alkaloids 3.5%.
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Sowing rate: seed 100g/1000plants, rootlets 300-1000/1000 plants.
Planting: for potted plant production, best to start with rootlets. Pot up rootlets 4 weeks before sale. Provide cool, shaded, and well-ventilated conditions; will not tolerate full sun and high humidity.
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: alternaria and other diseases common in potted plants in greenhouses.
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Lavender
(Lavandula angustifolia, L. x intermedia) |
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Market
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Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 9,000 hectares (world), 1,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 850-1300 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained, deep, not too rich, pH 6.5-7.5
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 3-6kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: lavandins (L. x intermedia; e.g. 'Provence' and 'Grosso'), best for commercial flower and oil production, are propagated vegetatively only. Only english types are available in seed form, but seed grown material may not be uniform enough for field production. Direct sowing not recommended; germination is too slow (15-30 days). Sow in seedflats 12-16 weeks before outdoor planting; transplant to plugs at 4-6 weeks, then transplant to field.
Field spacing: 60-120cm between rows x 25-120cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 500-1500kg/ha (years 2-5), oil 8-32kg/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: caterpillar, nematode
Diseases: phoma scab, septoria leaf spot, armillaria root rot.
Buyers want: 1.3% volatile oil or higher, good colour.
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Sowing rate: 5-10g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow 20-26 weeks before sale. Germination of english types (L. angustifolia) is frequently below 50%; scarification or freezing of seedflat can sometimes improve germination.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12-16 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8-10 weeks.
Pests: mealybug, whitefly, spider mite, scale
Diseases: few problems.
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Lemongrass
(Cymbopogon citratus, C. flexuosus) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (stem); (herb);
Market size: 50,000 hectares (world), 2,600 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: C. flexuosus 2000-2400 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, sandy loam, pH 5.5-6.5
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: C. flexuosus 5-10kg/ha (direct).
Planting: C. citratus grown from cuttings only. Sow C. flexuosus in spring. Heavy feeder. Oil quality of C. citratus highest at 18-24 months.
Field spacing: C. citratus 100cm between rows x 45cm within rows; broadcast C. flexuosus, or sow in rows 60-100cm apart.
Yield: C. citratus dry herb 4-6t/ha, oil 30-40kg/ha (years 1-5); C. flexuosus dry herb 10-15t/ha, 80kg/ha (years 1-5).
Pests: no data
Diseases: C. citratus himantia web blight, myriogenospora tangletop, helminthosperium eyespot, papularia.
Buyers want: high citral content.
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Sowing rate: 5g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow C. flexuosus in plugs 13-14 weeks before sale. C. citratus grown from cuttings only.
Seeds to finished plugs: 10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3-8 weeks.
Pests: spider mite, whitefly, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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Licorice
(Glycyrrhiza spp. ) |
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Market
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Products: (root);
Market size: 45,000 hectares (world), 480 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices down, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 400-600 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: deep, rich, moist, sandy, slightly alkaline, pH 7.3-7.8
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 3-4 kg/ha (direct), 5-10g/1000 plants (indirect).
Planting: soak seeds 2-3 hours in 30°C water or scarify before planting to weaken hard seed coat. Sow direct in spring or in deep plugs 12-16 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 70-90cm between rows x 45-90cm within rows.
Yield: G. glabra dry root 10-20t/ha (year 3-5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: uromyces rust, cercospora blight.
Buyers want: minimum 4% glycyrrhizinic acid, minimum 20% water soluble extractive.
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Sowing rate: 5-10g/1000plants.
Planting: soak seed in warm water (30°C) for 2-3 hours or scarify before sowing. Sow in flats or deep plugs 22-26 weeks before sale. Highly susceptible to damping-off; preventative application of damping-off control recommended.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12-16 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: damping-off.
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Lobelia
(Lobelia inflata ) |
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Market
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Products: (seed, herb);
Market size: 9,000 hectares (world), 1,700 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 30,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, rich soil
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 0.2-1kg/ha (direct), 0.1kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow in plugs or seedflats 12 weeks before field planting. Harvest herb when upper flowers are in bloom and lowest flowers have developed seed capsules when lobeline and lobelidine alkaloid content highest.
Field spacing: 30cm between rows x 15cm within rows.
Yield: dry herb 1100kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: wireworms
Diseases: cercospora, phyllosticta and septoria leaf spots.
Buyers want: no data.
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|
|
Sowing rate: 0.5g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow in plugs 14 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4-6 weeks.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
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| |
Marjoram
(Origanum majorana) |
|
Market
|
Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 12,000 hectares (world), 800 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 3,500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, pH 6.5-7.5
Crop duration: 1 year (2-3 years in zone 9+)
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|
Sowing rate: 5-6kg/ha (direct), 0.2-0.3kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: requires warmth to do well; germinates best above 15°C daytime and 10°C nighttime. Sow direct in warmer zones; or sow indirect in plugs 12 weeks before field planting in cooler zones.
Field spacing: 30-40cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: 2.5-3t/ha (years 1-3).
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: botrytis gray mold, alternaria, puccinia rust, septoria.
Buyers want: no data.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 1g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or direct in pots 6-8 weeks before sale. Minimum 15°C days, 10°C nights.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 2-4 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite, thrip
Diseases: few problems.
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| |
Chinese Milkvetch, Astragalus
(Astragalus membranaceus) |
|
Market
|
Products: (root);
Market size: 1,700 hectares (world), 560 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 130-160 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, deep, moist, alkaline
Crop duration: 4-5 years
|
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|
Sowing rate: 6-8 kg/ha (direct), 3-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: can be started in deep plugs, but suffers transplant shock easily. Probably better to sow direct in field, in early spring or fall. Scarification helps speed germination. Harvested in fall, lateral roots trimmed, dried partially and then sliced 0.5 cm thick, and then further dried.
Field spacing: 75-100cm between rows x 25cm within rows.
Yield: 7000kg/ha (year 4-5).
Pests: no data
Diseases: unidentified root rot when in wet conditions.
Buyers want: no data.
|
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|
Sowing rate: 75g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow in deep plugs 19-20 weeks before sale; transplant before plugs are root-bound. Highly susceptible to mites.
Seeds to finished plugs: 10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 9 weeks.
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: damping-off.
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| |
Mint
(Mentha spp.) |
|
Market
|
Products: (leaf, herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 240,000 hectares (world), 16,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 17,000-20,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: rich, moist, well-drained, pH 6.5-7
Crop duration: 2-3 years
|
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|
Sowing rate: 1 kg/ha (direct), 0.1-0.2kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: commercial plantings propagated vegetatively; seed not suitable because of poor oil quality. Root cuttings planted in early spring or fall. Fields must be rotated every 2-3 years to prevent disease buildup.
Field spacing: 40-90cm between rows x 15-45cm within rows.
Yield: peppermint herb oil 35-125kg/ha, fresh herb 10-25t/ha, dried herb 1-3t/ha (years 2-3).
Pests: nematode, aphid
Diseases: puccinia rust, verticillum wilt, leaf spot, sphaceloma spot anthracnose.
Buyers want: peppermint minimum 1-1.2% volatile oil, not more than 10% leaves spotted with puccinia rust, not more than 5% stems, 2% foreign matter or 11% water.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 0.5-1g/1000 plants.
Planting: most cultivars grown from cuttings. Seed material not recommended for pot plant sales.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite, aphid, mealybug
Diseases: rust.
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| |
Nettle
(Urtica dioica ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (herb, root, leaf, seed);
Market size: 1,600 hectares (world), 240 ha (North America)
Prospects: Prices stable, volume stable
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 6,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun or part shade
Soil: rich, moist, pH 6-7
Crop duration: 3-5 years
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 5kg/ha (direct), 0.6kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow in plugs 12 weeks before field planting, or direct in spring.
Field spacing: 30cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: 1000-2000kg/ha (years 3-5).
Pests: no data
Diseases: no data.
Buyers want: maximum 10% stems, 2% other foreign matter, total ash 20%, acid-insoluble ash 4%.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 2g/1000 plants (indirect).
Planting: sow in plugs 18 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: spider mite, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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|
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| |
Oregano
(Origanum spp. ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 8,000 hectares (world), 2,400 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up Varieties: most oregano is wildcrafted in Europe. In North America, much of the oregano is Lippia graveolens, the mexican variety.
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 3800-4500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, sandy, dry, pH 6-8
Crop duration: 3-5 years
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 2.5-3kg/ha (direct), 0.2-0.5kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: greek variety is best for commercial fresh and dry herb and oil production. Sow direct in spring when soil temperature is at least 15°C, or sow in plugs 6 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 30-40cm between rows x 7-15cm within rows.
Yield: dry herb 1000-3000kg/ha, fresh herb 10-20t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: unspecified fungal diseases can occur in wet weather.
Buyers want: strong scent, good green colour.
|
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|
Sowing rate: 0.5-1g/1000 plants.
Planting: most varieties cannot be grown from seeds; only greek variety is raised from seed commercially. Sow in plugs 12 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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| |
Parsley
(Petroselinum crispum) |
|
Market
|
Products: (leaf); (leaf, root);
Market size: 250,000 hectares (world), 25,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 650-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: tolerates most soils, but rich, well-drained, moist, pH 6-7 is best
Crop duration: 1 year
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 3-7 kg/ha (direct), 0.5-1.5kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field early spring or fall in warmer zones. Two or three cuts are possible.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 10-20cm within rows.
Yield: fresh herb 5-10t/ha, dry herb 1-2t/ha (year 1).
Pests: carrot root fly
Diseases: septoria and alternaria leaf spot.
Buyers want: good green colour (dry and fresh herb).
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 2-4g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or direct in pots. Sow 4-5 seeds per plug or 12 per pot.
Seeds to saleable plants: 12 weeks.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite, aphid
Diseases: few problems.
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|
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|
| |
Chile Pepper
(Capsicum annuum, C. spp.) |
|
Market
|
Products: (fruit); (fruit);
Market size: 100,000 hectares (world), 10,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 80-250 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained, loam, pH 6.5-7.5
Crop duration: 1 year
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 10kg/ha (direct), 0.5-1kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: should not follow in soils where pepper, eggplant, tobacco, potato, tomato and other Solanaceae were grown previously. Needs 21-30°C to do well. Minimum 16°C soil temperature required for germination In cooler temperate zones. Sow in flats or plugs 8-12 weeks before spring field planting. In warmer zones (e.g. southern U.S.), can be sown direct in field. Cultivation similar to bell peppers, except longer, warmer season required (65-80 days). Easily killed by frost. Excess nitrogen feeding will reduce fruit production. Irrigation necessary in drier areas; can improve yields 6-fold.
Field spacing: 90-130cm between rows x 30-60cm within rows.
Yield: fresh fruit 8-15t/ha, dry fruit 2t/ha (year 1).
Pests: aphid, ground beetle, pepper weevil
Diseases: xanthomonas bacterial spot, anthracnose, and many others.
Buyers want: varies greatly depending on the market.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 10-25g/1000plants.
Planting: sow 10-12 weeks before sale. Sow in flats or plugs. Mostly sold in 4- or 6-packs in spring like bedding annuals, or in pots.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite, aphid
Diseases: few problems.
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| |
Rosemary
(Rosmarinus officinalis ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (leaf); (leaf); (herb);
Market size: Most commercial product is from wildcrafted sources. Cultivated acreage is 200 hectares (North America); world acreage unknown
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained; pH 6.0-7.5
Crop duration: 10-20 years
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 1.5-3 kg/ha (direct), 0.2-0.6kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing not recommended because seeds are slow to germinate and seedlings are slow to establish. Sow in seedflats 20 weeks before field spring planting. Germination can be enhanced by exposing seedflat to 24-27°C for 1 week and then lower to 18°C for germination. Where rosemary is not hardy growers dig up plants and overwinter in cool greenhouses. Named cultivars must be grown from cuttings; seed only available for standard species.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 25-50cm within rows.
Yield: fresh herb 2000kg/ha (years 2-20).
Pests: no data
Diseases: root rot.
Buyers want: dried leaf minimum volatile oil 1.2%, maximum foreign matter 10%, maximum woody stems 2%, maximum ash 7%.
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|
|
Sowing rate: 10-15g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow in seedflats 22 weeks before sale in 10cm pots.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, scale, mealybug
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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| |
Sage
(Salvia officinalis ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (herb); (herb, sprouts); (herb);
Market size: 160,000 hectares (world), 2,400 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 125 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, rich, light or heavy, pH 6-6.5
Crop duration: 4-5 years
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 5-15 kg/ha (direct), 0.5-2kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring or sow in plugs 8 weeks before field planting. Trim plants to 15 cm in early spring to encourage new shoots. 'Die-back' occurs in heavy soils that do not drain well.
Field spacing: 50-75cm between rows x 30-50cm within rows.
Yield: dresh herb 10-20t/ha, dry herb 2.5-5t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: few problems with pests
Diseases: verticillium wilt, oidium powdery mildew.
Buyers want: minimum volatile oil 1.5%, maximum ash 8-12%, maximum foreign matter 3%.
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|
|
Sowing rate: 20-30g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or flats 12-14 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4-6 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite, mealybug
Diseases: damping-off, powdery mildew.
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|
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|
| |
St. Johnswort
(Hypericum perfoliatum ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (herb); (herb);
Market size: 2,400 hectares (world), 800 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices down, volume down
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 7,000-10,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, dry, pH 6-7
Crop duration: 2-3 years
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 1-1.5kg/ha (direct), 0.1-0.5kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing has been tried with success, but seedlings are slow to establish and weed control is a problem. Sow direct in field in spring. Or, sow indirect in plugs 8 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 20-90cm between rows x 20-30cm within rows.
Yield: 1000-1200kg/ha (years 2-3).
Pests: chrysolina beetle, nematode
Diseases: colletotrichum anthracnose. Chrysolina beetle has become a serious problem is some areas after several years of cultivation. Serious anthracnose damage has been reported in areas where St. Johnswort has been cultivated for several years. There is evidence of a correlation between chrysolina infestation and anthracnose.
Buyers want: minimum 0.3% hypericin, maximum 5-8% ash, 2% foreign matter, 10% loss on drying.
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|
|
Sowing rate: 2g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs 10-12 weeks prior to sale. anthracnose disease (reddening of foliage and dieback) is a serious problem in plug production; avoid overwatering and watering late in day. Anthracnose spreads by unknown vector; may be insect or splashing water.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 2-4 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: colletotrichum anthracnose.
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| |
Savory
(Satureja hortensis, S. montana) |
|
Market
|
Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 800 hectares (world), 320 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 1700-2600 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained
Crop duration: S. hortensis 1 year; S. montana 3-6 years
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|
|
Sowing rate: S. hortensis 6-20 kg/ha (direct); S. montana 6 kg/ha (direct), 0.2-1kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in spring. S. montana best sown in plugs 8 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: S. hortensis 15-90cm between rows x 15-20cm within rows; S. montana 30-60cm x 17-20cm.
Yield: S. hortensis dry herb 2500-5000kg/ha, oil 30kg/ha (year 1); S. montana dry herb 1-3t/ha (years 2-6).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: No data.
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|
|
Sowing rate: 2-5g/1000plants.
Planting: S. hortensis can be sown direct in pots, 6 weeks before sale. Sow S. montana in plugs 12 weeks before sale.
Seeds to saleable plants: S. hortensis 6 weeks.
Seeds to finished plugs: S. montana 4-6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: S. montana 8 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite, aphid
Diseases: few problems.
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|
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| |
Scullcap
(Scutellaria lateriflora, S. baicalensis) |
|
Market
|
Products: (herb – S. lateriflora, root – S. baicalensis);
Market size: 5,000 hectares (world), 400 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: S. lateriflora 3400; S. baicalensis 550 seeds/gram
Exposure: sun or partial shade.
Soil: fertile, damp, light, well-drained, pH 6-7
Crop duration: 3-4 years
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|
|
Sowing rate: S. lateriflora 1-1.5 kg/ha (direct), 0.1-1kg/ha (indirect); S. baicalensis 8-12 kg/ha (direct), 0.3-2kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: S. lateriflora best sown in plugs 8 weeks before field planting; herb harvested in 3-4 years. S. baicalensis best sown direct in field in spring; root harvested in 3-4 years in spring or autumn.
Field spacing: 15-60cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: no data (years 3-4).
Pests: no data
Diseases: no data.
Buyers want: presence of scutellarin in S. lateriflora, baicalin in S. baicalensis.
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|
|
Sowing rate: 5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs 15 weeks before sale. Very sensitive to overwatering.
Seeds to finished plugs: 10-12 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4 weeks.
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
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|
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|
| |
Alfalfa
(Medicago sativa ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (seeds, leaf, herb); (herb, sprouts)
Market size: (excluding acreage planted for fodder): 12,000 hectares (world); 5,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices and acreage up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 350 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained; pH 6.0-7.5
Crop duration: 1-4 years
|
|
(herb) |
Sowing rate: 9-13kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring, broadcast or sow in rows, 15-30cm apart. Two or more cuts at bud stage possible; last cut 6 weeks before killing frost. Heavy potash and phosphorus feeder.
Yield: dry herb 8-10,000kg/ha (years 1-4).
Pests: weevil, leafminer, leafhopper, snout beetle
Diseases: verticillium wilt, leafspot, phytophthora root rot.
Buyers want: organic product.
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|
(sprouts) |
Planting: soak seeds overnight; drain, keep moist. Ready in 3-5 days.
Yield: 4kg(sprouts)/kg(seeds).
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|
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| |
Arnica
(A. montana, A. chamissonis) |
|
Market
|
Products: (flower, root); (flower);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 160 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume down
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 700-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, humus-rich, pH 7 (A. chamissonis), pH 4.5-6 (A. montana)
Crop duration: 3-5 years
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 1-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing not recommended. Sow in seedflats or plugs. Sow A. montana 16-20 weeks before transplanting to field; sow A. chamissonis 12 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 15-60cm between rows x 15-20cm within rows.
Harvest: flower (years 2-5), root (year 3 or 4).
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: chlorosis (yellow leaves) in A. montana caused by alkaline soil.
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|
|
Sowing rate: 8-10g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in seedflats or plugs 20 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8 weeks.
Pests: few problems, whitefly occasionally
Diseases: few problems.
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|
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|
| |
Lemon Balm
(Melissa officinalis) |
|
Market
|
Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 75 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 2000 seeds/gram
Exposure: sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained clay or sandy loam, pH 6 to 7.5
Crop duration: 2-4 years
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 7-9kg/ha (direct), 250-400g/ha (indirect, in plugs).
Planting: sowing in plugs in greenhouse in early spring till mid-summer is most common method; sow 6-8 weeks before transplanting to field. Direct sowing is not as common because weed control is more difficult; sow in early spring or late fall (to come up next spring).
Field spacing: 50-75cm between rows x 18-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry herb 5000kg/ha, fresh herb 10-25t/ha (years 1-3).
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: erisyphe powdery mildew, septoria blight, puccinia rust.
Buyers want: dry carefully to conserve oil in dried herb.
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|
|
Sowing rate: 3-5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in flats or plugs 11-14 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spidermite, thrip
Diseases: mildew.
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|
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| |
Basil
(Ocimum basilicum, and others ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (leaf, herb); (herb); (oil);
Market size: 10,000 hectares (world), 1,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 500-1000 (O. gratissimum 2600, O. kilamandscharicum 2800, O. sanctum 1500-2500) seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: rich, well-drained
Crop duration: 1 year (O. basilicum), 1-3 years (others)
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|
|
Sowing rate: 20kg/ha (direct); 3-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in spring when nighttime temperatures exceed 10°C; or sow in flats or plugs 8 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 15-25cm within rows.
Yield: fresh herb 15,000kg/ha, dry herb 1,500-2,000kg/ha, oil 30kg/ha (year 1)
Pests: aphids, thrips
Diseases: O. basilicum varieties are highly susceptible to fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum) disease. Disease persists in soil for several years. Commercial field plantings should be sown with fusarium-tolerant Nufar F1. Hydroponic operations may choose fusarium-free varieties if equipment and facilities are free of fusarium (spreads by contaminated seeds and equipment). Other basil species (e.g. O. americanum and O. gratissimum) are fusarium-tolerant.
Buyers want: not less than 0.4% essential oil in dried product.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 3-4g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in final pots, or in plugs and later transplant to final pots. Nighttime temperature must not go below 10°C.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, thrips, aphids
Diseases: fusarium (see above).
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|
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|
| |
Bay Laurel
(Laurus nobilis ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (leaf); (leaf);
Market size: 2,000 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 1 seeds/gram
Exposure: sheltered position in full or half sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, moist
Crop duration: 20-50 years
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 30-60kg/ha
Planting: sow stratified seeds in beds or flats.
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: leaves dried flat for visual appearance.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 5kg/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or flats in March or April.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks (after stratification).
Plugs to saleable plants: 10 weeks to a year.
Pests: whitefly, scale, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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|
|
|
| |
Borage
(Borago officinalis ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (seed, herb, flower, root); (herb, flower, root), (seed);
Market size: 5,000 hectares (world); 2,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, acreage up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 50 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: best in well-drained, fertile, moist soil, but tolerates most soils, pH 5-8
Crop duration: 1 year
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 5-17 kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in late spring in rows 45-90cm apart, 30-45cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 300kg/ha; fresh flower 1,000-5,000kg/ha; seed 90-450kg/ha.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: 24% gamma lineolenic acid content in seed oil.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 50-80g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots or plugs.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
|
|
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|
| |
Burdock
(Arctium lappa) |
|
Market
|
Products: (root, leaf); (root);
Market size: 3,000 hectares (world), 170 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 60-110 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or part sun
Soil: deep, loose, humus-rich, pH 6-8
Crop duration: 1-2 years
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 4 kg/ha (direct), 1.5kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring. Or, sow in beds or plugs and transplant to field in spring. For use as fresh vegetable, dig first year roots when young and tender at 3-5 months. For dry root production, dig in fall of second year.
Field spacing: 45-90cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry root 2,000kg/ha (years 2 or 3).
Pests: few problems, grasshopper
Diseases: few problems.
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Sowing rate: 20g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs 9-10 weeks before sale.
Seeds to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Calendula
(C. officinalis) |
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Market
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Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 880 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 150 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained; can tolerate poor soil with low nitrogen.
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 3-9kg/ha (direct), 1kg/ha (indirect in plugs).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring or autumn; or sow in plugs 4-6 weeks before field planting. Seeds need light to germinate; cover seeds lightly or press in soil only.
Field spacing: 20-70cm between rows x 10-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 1-2,000kg/ha, fresh flower 6-9,000kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: blister-beetle, cabbage-looper, caterpillar, leafhopper
Diseases: leaf spot, aster-yellows.
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Sowing rate: 15g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or direct in pots 10-12 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 4-6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, aphid, thrip, mealybug
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Caraway
(Carum carvi) |
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Market
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Products: (seed); (seed)
Market size: 19,000 hectares (world), 2,500 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 350-400 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, pH 6-7.8.
Crop duration: 1-2 years (depending on variety)
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Sowing rate: 8-11 kg/ha.
Planting: sow standard biennial type direct in field late June or early July; harvest following year in August. Sow annual type in May (suited for warmer regions with 5-6 frost-free months). Sometimes sown with annual cover crops such as coriander, dill, mustard the first year.
Field spacing: 10-50cm between rows x 4-15cm within rows.
Yield: seed 600-3,000kg/ha, oil 4.5-7kg/ha (year 1 or 2, depending on variety).
Pests: leafhopper
Diseases: aster yellows.
Buyers want: seed minimum 3% oil, maximum 12% moisture.
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Catnip
(Nepeta cataria ) |
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Market
|
Products: (herb, leaf);
Market size: 2,400 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 1500-1600 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or partial sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, sandy, pH 6.5
Crop duration: 2-5 years
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Sowing rate: 12 kg/ha (direct), 1kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring or late fall. Or, sow in plugs 8-10 weeks before field planting. Seed needs light to germinate; sow shallow 2-4mm deep.
Field spacing: 45-90cm between rows x 30-40cm within rows.
Harvest: leaf, herb (years 2-5).
Yield: dry herb 3-6t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
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Sowing rate: 3g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or seedflats 12-15 weeks before sale. Sow 2-4mm deep.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8-10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3-5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
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Chamomile
(Matricaria recutita, Chamaemelum nobile ) |
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Market
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Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 40,000 hectares (world), 4,800 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 10,000-18,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained, moist to dry
Crop duration: 1 year (M. recutita), 2-3 years (C. nobile)
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Sowing rate: 3-4 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect)
Planting: german (M. recutita) is sown direct in field in spring or fall. Fall sowings germinate following spring. Roman (C. nobile) is sown direct or indirect in plugs which are later planted in field. Surface sow only (needs light to germinate). Hand harvesting flowers problematic in areas where labour cost is high; mechanical harvesting still unproven.
Field spacing: 10-50cm between rows x 10-25cm within rows, or broadcast sown.
Yield: dry flower 350-500kg/ha (M. recutita; year 1), 600-1000 kg/ha (C. nobile; years 1-3).
Pests: cnephasia moth
Diseases: aster yellows.
Buyers want: 0.4% or more volatile oil.
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Sowing rate: 1g/1000plants.
Planting: german (M. recutita) not normally sold in pots; roman (C. nobile) and its varieties are sold in pots or plugs. Seeds need light to germinate; surface sow only.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4-6 weeks.
Pests: aphid, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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Chives
(Allium schoenoprasum, A. tuberosum ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf, flower); (leaf, flower);
Market size: 24,000 hectares (world), 3,200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 750 (A. schoenoprasum), 200-300 (A. tuberosum) seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, humus-rich
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 2-3 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring, or sow indirect in plugs 12-16 weeks before field planting. Field must be free of quackgrass otherwise harvests will be contaminated.
Field spacing: 30cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: fresh leaf 10-20t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: aphid
Diseases: puccinia rust, downy mildew.
Buyers want: good green colour (dry leaf).
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Sowing rate: 5-20g/1000plants (A. schoenoprasum), 50g/1000plants (A. tuberosum)
Planting: sow 10-15 seeds per plug or pot, or sow same amount direct in pots.
Seeds to saleable plants: 24-30 weeks.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12-16 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 11 weeks.
Pests: aphid, thrip
Diseases: few problems.
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Comfrey
(Symphytum officinale, S. x uplandicum) |
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Market
|
Products: (leaf, root); (root, herb);
Market size: 1,700 hectares (world), 240 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 90-100 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or part sun
Soil: moist, wet or dry
Crop duration: 2-5 years
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Sowing rate: 600-900g/ha (indirect).
Planting: although seed can be sown direct, the high cost of seed dictates indirect sowing in plugs or seedbed and transplanting to field. Root cuttings (12,000/ha) of named cultivars (e.g. Bocking No. 14) recommended over seed.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 90cm within rows.
Yield: dry leaf 12t/ha (years 2-5), dry root 1,800kg/ha (year 3, 4 or 5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: comfrey rust.
Buyers want: low pyrrolizidine alkaloid content, particularly echimidine; leaf should be cut early to avoid alkaloid buildup.
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Sowing rate: 50-70g/1000plants.
Planting: sow S. officinale in plugs or seedflats 12-14 weeks before sale. S. x uplandicum and ornamental varieties are propagated by division or root cutting.
Seeds to saleable plants: 12 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, aphid
Diseases: comfrey rust.
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Coriander, Cilantro
(Coriandrum sativum) |
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Market
|
Products: (seed); (herb); (seed, herb);
Market size: 600,000 hectares (world), 5,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 110-150 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun (seed), full or half sun (fresh herb)
Soil: deep, fertile, light or heavy, well-drained, pH 6.5-7.5
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 25 kg/ha (seed), 80 kg/ha (fresh herb).
Planting: for seed and seed oil production, sow direct in spring. For fresh herb (cilantro) and herb oil production sow early spring and fall; will bolt in hot weather.
Field spacing: 50-60cm between rows x 11-13cm between plants (seed), 20-25cm between rows x 8-10cm (fresh herb).
Yield: seed 900-1,500kg/ha, fresh herb 10-12t/ha, oil 1-9kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: thrip
Diseases: asters yellow, erysiphe powdery mildew, puccinia rust, pseudamonas, and sclerotina.
Buyers want: less than 12% moisture.
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Sowing rate: 200g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots; do not transplant – root disturbance causes plants to bolt early.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: aphid, thrip, mite, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Dandelion
(Taraxacum officinale) |
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Market
|
Products: (root, herb); (leaf)
Market size: 7,000 hectares (world); 500 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 1200-1900 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: most soils
Crop duration: 2 years (root), 1-4 years (fresh leaf)
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Sowing rate: 1-3kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring or late summer. Fresh leaf gathered as vegetable spring, summer and fall. Herb for drying harvested spring or summer. Roots dug late fall.
Field spacing: 45cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: dry root 1100-1700kg/ha (year 2).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: water-soluble extractive not less than 30%.
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Dill
(Anethum graveolens, A. sowa ) |
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Market
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Products: (seed, herb); (leaf); (leaf, seed);
Market size: 37,000 hectares (world), 4,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices same, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 400-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, moderately rich, loose soil, pH 5.5-6.5
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 9-12 kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in spring.
Field spacing: 25-50cm between rows; thin to 10cm within rows for fresh herb production or 2-3cm within rows for seed production.
Yield: seed 600-900kg/ha, fresh herb 2500-5000kg/ha, dried herb 1000kg/ha, oil 50-110kg/ha.
Pests: aphid, tarnished plant bug
Diseases: powdery mildew, leafspot, aster yellows.
Buyers want: good green colour (dried leaf).
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Sowing rate: 15-40g/1000pots.
Planting: do not transplant; sow direct in pots, 8-20 seeds per pot.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: aphid
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Echinacea
(Echinacea purpurea, E. angustifolia, E. pallida ) |
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Market
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Products: (root, herb, flower, seed); (herb);
Market size: 16,000 hectares (world), 4,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices down, acreage up; market for E. purpurea herb is weak.
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Culture |
Seed density: 160-500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained, pH 6-7.5
Crop duration: 3-4 years
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Sowing rate: 14-18 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: E. purpurea seeds do not require pretreatment. Can be started in plugs and transplanted to the field, which is the preferred method, or can be sown direct in the field. Sow E. purpurea 100-120 days before field planting; sow E. angustifolia and E. pallida 150 days before planting. E. angustifolia and E. pallida germination benefits from pretreatment; stratify at 5°C for 4-12 weeks with light. Pretreatment with Ethrel (1 millimolar for 2 weeks), or with bleach (1% for 10 min.) improves E. angustifolia germination.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 20-45cm within rows.
Yield: E. purpurea herb 6,500-11,000kg/ha (years 2-4); E. purpurea root 1000kg/ha (year 4); E. angustifolia root 1100kg/ha (year 4); no data for E. pallida root.
Pests: leafhopper
Diseases: aster yellows (spread by leafhoppers), sclerotinia stem and root rot, botrytis.
Buyers want: certificate of botanical identity required for E. angustifolia; echinacoside 1.4% (roots).
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Sowing rate: 10g/1000plants.
Planting: sow 14 weeks (E. purpurea) to 22 weeks (E. angustifolia, E. pallida) before sale. Stratify or pretreat E. angustifolia and E. pallida seed before sowing (see above).
Seeds to finished plugs: 8-12 weeks (after pretreatment).
Plugs to saleable plants: 6-10 weeks.
Pests: few problems, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Elecampane
(Inula helenium ) |
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Market
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Products: (root); (root);
Market size: 800 hectares (world), 25 ha (North America).
Prospects: prices same, volume same
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Culture |
Seed density: 600-800 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: moist, deep, well-drained
Crop duration: 2 years.
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Sowing rate: 400-600g/ha (direct); 5g/1000plants (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing not recommended. Start in plugs 8 weeks before spring or late summer field planting.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 45cm within rows.
Yield: 2500kg/ha (year 2).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: erysiphe powdery mildew (late summer), ramularia leafspot, puccinia rust.
Buyers want: not less than 1.8% volatile oil, not more than 6-8% ash, not less than 27% water-soluble extractive, not more than 2% foreign matter.
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Sowing rate: 5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs, seedflats or seed beds. Germination in 4-7 days.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 2-6 weeks.
Pests: spider mite, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Fennel
(Foeniculum vulgare) |
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Market
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Products: (seed); (leaf, bulb); (herb);
Market size: 70,000 hectares (world), 7,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 200-300 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, deep, moderately fertile, pH 7-8.
Crop duration: 2-3 years (florence fennel, 1 year)
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Sowing rate: 4-6kg/ha (direct), 30g/1000plants (indirect).
Planting: sow sweet fennel direct; bronze direct or indirect; florence indirect.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: seed 1000-1600kg/ha (years 2-3), fresh herb 8-10t/ha (year 1-3), dried herb 1.5-2.5t/ha (year 1-3), seed oil 40-75kg/ha.
Pests: aphid, lygus tarnished plant bug
Diseases: sclerotinia stemrot, rhizoctonia damping-off, erwinia soft rot.
Buyers want: not less than 2-4% volatile oil.
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Sowing rate: 30g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots or in plugs. Does not transplant well; best to sow direct.
Seeds to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3 weeks.
Pests: aphid
Diseases: damping-off.
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Fenugreek
(Trigonella foenum-graecum) |
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Market
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Products: (seeds, leaf, herb); (herb, sprouts); (seed)
Market size: 90,000 hectares (world), 7,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 100 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, warm soil
Crop duration: 1 year.
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Sowing rate: 25-35kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in spring. Broadcast or in close rows.
Field spacing: 20cm between rows x 10-20cm within rows.
Yield: seed 700-900kg/ha, dried forage 2-10t/ha.
Pests: no data
Diseases: no data.
Buyers want: swelling index not less than 6, foreign matter not more than 2-5%, ash not more than 5-6% (seed).
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Feverfew
(Tanacetum parthenium) |
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Market
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Products: (herb);
Market size: 1,300 hectares (world), 160 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume down
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Culture |
Seed density: 7,500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained, dry soil
Crop duration: 1-2 years
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Sowing rate: 1-1.5 kg/ha (direct); 0.5g/1000plants.
Planting: plugs preferred over direct sowing because seeds very small. Sow plugs 8 weeks before spring planting date. Don't allow to go to seed to avoid winterkill. Frequent fertilization with low nitrogen fertilizer is beneficial. Long days trigger flowering. Short lived perennial; some growers treat as annual.
Field spacing: 20-90cm between rows x 10-20cm within rows.
Yield: 300-5000kg/ha (years 1-2).
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: minimum 0.4-0.8% parthenolide.
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Sowing rate: 0.5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow 14-16 weeks before sales in flats or plug trays.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6-8 weeks.
Pests: aphid, whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
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Scented Geranium
(Pelargonium spp. ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (leaf);
Market size: 4,000 hectares (world), 400 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 360-450 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, neutral to alkaline
Crop duration: 1 year temperate areas, 3-5 year in tropical areas.d o Planting: all commercially important varieties are propagated by cuttings. Plugs planted in spring after last frost date. FieldSpacing: 60-100cm between rows x 20-50cm within rows. Yield: fresh leaf 13-30t/ha, oil 13-17kg/ha (years 1-5). PestsDiseases: aphid, caterpillar / alternaria leaf spot.
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Seeds/ |
Planting: all commercially important varieties are propagated by cuttings. Plugs planted in spring after last frost date.
Field spacing: 60-100cm between rows x 20-50cm within rows.
Yield: fresh leaf 13-30t/ha, oil 13-17kg/ha (years 1-5).
Pests: aphid, caterpillar
Diseases: alternaria leaf spot.
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Sowing rate: 30-80g/1000 plants.
Planting: commercial propagation is by cutting only.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6-8 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, geranium and peach aphid, mite, mealybug, scale
Diseases: various leaf spots including xanthomonas, alternaria, botrytis.
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Gingko
(Ginkgo biloba ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (seed);
Market size: 5,000 hectares (world), 600 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 1 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: rich, well-drained, moist soil
Crop duration: 20-50+ years
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Sowing rate: 2-4kg/hectare.
Planting: seeds require stratification, 1-2 months warm, then 1-2 months cold, then sow in spring. Common nursery practice is to sow without stratification in outdoor seed beds in fall. Seedlings shaded for 2-3 years and fertilized with manure. Seedlings transplanted to permanent location when 7-8 years old. Trees kept short (2m) and spaced close (2-3m) in commercial plantations for medicinal leaf production; otherwise allowed to grow higher and spaced further for seed production. Slow growing. Leaves harvested in early fall as they begin to turn yellow; dried in sun. Fruits harvested late fall, seeds cleaned and roasted.
Field spacing: 3-5m apart (2-3m within rows for leaf production).
Yield: no data (leaf years 8-50, seed years 20-50).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: tolerates pollution.
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Sowing rate: 2-4kg/1000 plants.
Planting: stratify seed warm (1-2 months) followed by cold (1-2 months). Sow in deep plugs. Keep lightly shaded.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks to 1 year.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8 weeks (10cm pots), 2-5 years (larger plants).
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Ginseng
(Panax quinquefolius, P. ginseng; Eleutherococcus senticosus) |
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Market
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Products: (root)
Market size: Panax 70,000 hectares (world), 7,400 ha (North America)
Prospects: Panax prices down, volume up. Prospects for woodsgrown Panax much better than shadecloth grown.
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Culture |
Seed density: Panax 15; Eleutherococcus 100 seeds/gram
Exposure: Panax 70% shade; Eleutherococcus 30-50% shade
Soil: well-drained, sandy or clay loam, in raised beds, pH 5.5-6.0
Crop duration: Panax 3-4 years (shadecloth), 4-8 years (woodsgrown); Eleutherococcus 6-12 years
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Sowing rate: 40-100 kg/ha (shadecloth), 10-20 kg/ha (woodsgrown).
Planting: Panax seeds stratified one year. Sow stratified seeds in seedbeds and transplant seedlings to raised beds in years 1-2, or sow direct in raised beds. Mulch with straw. Remove shadecloth over winter. Eleutherococcus seeds need at least cycles of warm-cold stratification; best results obtained when sown in flats in fall and left out over winter under mulch.
Field spacing: Panax 15-20cm between rows x 15-20cm within rows, further apart in woodsgrown plantings; Eleutherococcus 60-100cm apart.
Yield: Panax (shadecloth) 3400kg/ha (years 3-4).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: Panax alternaria leaf blight, rhizoctonia wilt, phytophthora, powdery mildew; Eleutherococcus few problems.
Buyers want: ginsenosides not less than 1.5-2%, ash not more than 4-8%.
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Sowing rate: Panax 150g/1000 plants; Eleutherococcus 250g/1000plants.
Planting: sow stratified Panax seeds in deep plugs, 2-4 seeds per plug, or sow in seed flats. Provide shade, keep cool and well ventilated.
Seeds to finished plugs: Panax 6 months (after stratification).
Plugs to saleable plants: Panax 1 year.
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: Panax alternaria, rhizoctonia.
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Goldenseal
(Hydrastis canadensis) |
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Market
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Products: (root);
Market size: 17,000 hectares (world), 7,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices down, volume up. Majority of market supplied by wildcrafted material, but wild stocks are becoming depleted and now listed on CITES.
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Culture |
Seed density: 50-55 seeds/gram
Exposure: 50-75% Shade
Soil: well-drained, deep, fertile soil, pH 5.5-6.5, in raised beds or on gentle slope.
Crop duration: 3-6 years
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Sowing rate: 10kg/ha (direct), 100g/1000 plants (indirect); rootlets 100,000/ha.
Planting: growers prefer rootlets over seeds because they are more reliable and quicker to harvestable size (3 years); however, seed quality has improved recently and cost of seeds is much less than rootlets. Seeds take 5-6 years to get harvestable roots. Seeds must not dry out; must be sown immediately after harvest in late summer to come up following spring. Avoid straw mulch and fertilize lightly.
Field spacing: 15-40cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: 900-2300kg/ha (year 3-6).
Pests: slugs
Diseases: alternaria, phytophthora, rhizoctonia, botrytis leafspot, fusarium.
Buyers want: min. alkaloids 3.5%.
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Sowing rate: seed 100g/1000plants, rootlets 300-1000/1000 plants.
Planting: for potted plant production, best to start with rootlets. Pot up rootlets 4 weeks before sale. Provide cool, shaded, and well-ventilated conditions; will not tolerate full sun and high humidity.
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: alternaria and other diseases common in potted plants in greenhouses.
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Lavender
(Lavandula angustifolia, L. x intermedia) |
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Market
|
Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 9,000 hectares (world), 1,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 850-1300 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained, deep, not too rich, pH 6.5-7.5
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 3-6kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: lavandins (L. x intermedia; e.g. 'Provence' and 'Grosso'), best for commercial flower and oil production, are propagated vegetatively only. Only english types are available in seed form, but seed grown material may not be uniform enough for field production. Direct sowing not recommended; germination is too slow (15-30 days). Sow in seedflats 12-16 weeks before outdoor planting; transplant to plugs at 4-6 weeks, then transplant to field.
Field spacing: 60-120cm between rows x 25-120cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 500-1500kg/ha (years 2-5), oil 8-32kg/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: caterpillar, nematode
Diseases: phoma scab, septoria leaf spot, armillaria root rot.
Buyers want: 1.3% volatile oil or higher, good colour.
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Sowing rate: 5-10g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow 20-26 weeks before sale. Germination of english types (L. angustifolia) is frequently below 50%; scarification or freezing of seedflat can sometimes improve germination.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12-16 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8-10 weeks.
Pests: mealybug, whitefly, spider mite, scale
Diseases: few problems.
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Lemongrass
(Cymbopogon citratus, C. flexuosus) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (stem); (herb);
Market size: 50,000 hectares (world), 2,600 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: C. flexuosus 2000-2400 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, sandy loam, pH 5.5-6.5
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: C. flexuosus 5-10kg/ha (direct).
Planting: C. citratus grown from cuttings only. Sow C. flexuosus in spring. Heavy feeder. Oil quality of C. citratus highest at 18-24 months.
Field spacing: C. citratus 100cm between rows x 45cm within rows; broadcast C. flexuosus, or sow in rows 60-100cm apart.
Yield: C. citratus dry herb 4-6t/ha, oil 30-40kg/ha (years 1-5); C. flexuosus dry herb 10-15t/ha, 80kg/ha (years 1-5).
Pests: no data
Diseases: C. citratus himantia web blight, myriogenospora tangletop, helminthosperium eyespot, papularia.
Buyers want: high citral content.
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Sowing rate: 5g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow C. flexuosus in plugs 13-14 weeks before sale. C. citratus grown from cuttings only.
Seeds to finished plugs: 10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3-8 weeks.
Pests: spider mite, whitefly, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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Licorice
(Glycyrrhiza spp. ) |
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Market
|
Products: (root);
Market size: 45,000 hectares (world), 480 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices down, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 400-600 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: deep, rich, moist, sandy, slightly alkaline, pH 7.3-7.8
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 3-4 kg/ha (direct), 5-10g/1000 plants (indirect).
Planting: soak seeds 2-3 hours in 30°C water or scarify before planting to weaken hard seed coat. Sow direct in spring or in deep plugs 12-16 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 70-90cm between rows x 45-90cm within rows.
Yield: G. glabra dry root 10-20t/ha (year 3-5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: uromyces rust, cercospora blight.
Buyers want: minimum 4% glycyrrhizinic acid, minimum 20% water soluble extractive.
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Sowing rate: 5-10g/1000plants.
Planting: soak seed in warm water (30°C) for 2-3 hours or scarify before sowing. Sow in flats or deep plugs 22-26 weeks before sale. Highly susceptible to damping-off; preventative application of damping-off control recommended.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12-16 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: damping-off.
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Lobelia
(Lobelia inflata ) |
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Market
|
Products: (seed, herb);
Market size: 9,000 hectares (world), 1,700 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 30,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, rich soil
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 0.2-1kg/ha (direct), 0.1kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow in plugs or seedflats 12 weeks before field planting. Harvest herb when upper flowers are in bloom and lowest flowers have developed seed capsules when lobeline and lobelidine alkaloid content highest.
Field spacing: 30cm between rows x 15cm within rows.
Yield: dry herb 1100kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: wireworms
Diseases: cercospora, phyllosticta and septoria leaf spots.
Buyers want: no data.
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Sowing rate: 0.5g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow in plugs 14 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4-6 weeks.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
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Marjoram
(Origanum majorana) |
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Market
|
Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 12,000 hectares (world), 800 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 3,500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, pH 6.5-7.5
Crop duration: 1 year (2-3 years in zone 9+)
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Sowing rate: 5-6kg/ha (direct), 0.2-0.3kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: requires warmth to do well; germinates best above 15°C daytime and 10°C nighttime. Sow direct in warmer zones; or sow indirect in plugs 12 weeks before field planting in cooler zones.
Field spacing: 30-40cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: 2.5-3t/ha (years 1-3).
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: botrytis gray mold, alternaria, puccinia rust, septoria.
Buyers want: no data.
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Sowing rate: 1g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or direct in pots 6-8 weeks before sale. Minimum 15°C days, 10°C nights.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 2-4 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite, thrip
Diseases: few problems.
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Chinese Milkvetch, Astragalus
(Astragalus membranaceus) |
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Market
|
Products: (root);
Market size: 1,700 hectares (world), 560 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 130-160 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, deep, moist, alkaline
Crop duration: 4-5 years
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Sowing rate: 6-8 kg/ha (direct), 3-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: can be started in deep plugs, but suffers transplant shock easily. Probably better to sow direct in field, in early spring or fall. Scarification helps speed germination. Harvested in fall, lateral roots trimmed, dried partially and then sliced 0.5 cm thick, and then further dried.
Field spacing: 75-100cm between rows x 25cm within rows.
Yield: 7000kg/ha (year 4-5).
Pests: no data
Diseases: unidentified root rot when in wet conditions.
Buyers want: no data.
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Sowing rate: 75g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow in deep plugs 19-20 weeks before sale; transplant before plugs are root-bound. Highly susceptible to mites.
Seeds to finished plugs: 10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 9 weeks.
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: damping-off.
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Mint
(Mentha spp.) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf, herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 240,000 hectares (world), 16,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 17,000-20,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: rich, moist, well-drained, pH 6.5-7
Crop duration: 2-3 years
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Sowing rate: 1 kg/ha (direct), 0.1-0.2kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: commercial plantings propagated vegetatively; seed not suitable because of poor oil quality. Root cuttings planted in early spring or fall. Fields must be rotated every 2-3 years to prevent disease buildup.
Field spacing: 40-90cm between rows x 15-45cm within rows.
Yield: peppermint herb oil 35-125kg/ha, fresh herb 10-25t/ha, dried herb 1-3t/ha (years 2-3).
Pests: nematode, aphid
Diseases: puccinia rust, verticillum wilt, leaf spot, sphaceloma spot anthracnose.
Buyers want: peppermint minimum 1-1.2% volatile oil, not more than 10% leaves spotted with puccinia rust, not more than 5% stems, 2% foreign matter or 11% water.
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Sowing rate: 0.5-1g/1000 plants.
Planting: most cultivars grown from cuttings. Seed material not recommended for pot plant sales.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite, aphid, mealybug
Diseases: rust.
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Nettle
(Urtica dioica ) |
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Market
|
Products: (herb, root, leaf, seed);
Market size: 1,600 hectares (world), 240 ha (North America)
Prospects: Prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 6,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun or part shade
Soil: rich, moist, pH 6-7
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 5kg/ha (direct), 0.6kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow in plugs 12 weeks before field planting, or direct in spring.
Field spacing: 30cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: 1000-2000kg/ha (years 3-5).
Pests: no data
Diseases: no data.
Buyers want: maximum 10% stems, 2% other foreign matter, total ash 20%, acid-insoluble ash 4%.
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Sowing rate: 2g/1000 plants (indirect).
Planting: sow in plugs 18 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: spider mite, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Oregano
(Origanum spp. ) |
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Market
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Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 8,000 hectares (world), 2,400 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up Varieties: most oregano is wildcrafted in Europe. In North America, much of the oregano is Lippia graveolens, the mexican variety.
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Culture |
Seed density: 3800-4500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, sandy, dry, pH 6-8
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 2.5-3kg/ha (direct), 0.2-0.5kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: greek variety is best for commercial fresh and dry herb and oil production. Sow direct in spring when soil temperature is at least 15°C, or sow in plugs 6 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 30-40cm between rows x 7-15cm within rows.
Yield: dry herb 1000-3000kg/ha, fresh herb 10-20t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: unspecified fungal diseases can occur in wet weather.
Buyers want: strong scent, good green colour.
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Sowing rate: 0.5-1g/1000 plants.
Planting: most varieties cannot be grown from seeds; only greek variety is raised from seed commercially. Sow in plugs 12 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Parsley
(Petroselinum crispum) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (leaf, root);
Market size: 250,000 hectares (world), 25,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 650-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: tolerates most soils, but rich, well-drained, moist, pH 6-7 is best
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 3-7 kg/ha (direct), 0.5-1.5kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field early spring or fall in warmer zones. Two or three cuts are possible.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 10-20cm within rows.
Yield: fresh herb 5-10t/ha, dry herb 1-2t/ha (year 1).
Pests: carrot root fly
Diseases: septoria and alternaria leaf spot.
Buyers want: good green colour (dry and fresh herb).
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Sowing rate: 2-4g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or direct in pots. Sow 4-5 seeds per plug or 12 per pot.
Seeds to saleable plants: 12 weeks.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite, aphid
Diseases: few problems.
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Chile Pepper
(Capsicum annuum, C. spp.) |
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Market
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Products: (fruit); (fruit);
Market size: 100,000 hectares (world), 10,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 80-250 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained, loam, pH 6.5-7.5
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 10kg/ha (direct), 0.5-1kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: should not follow in soils where pepper, eggplant, tobacco, potato, tomato and other Solanaceae were grown previously. Needs 21-30°C to do well. Minimum 16°C soil temperature required for germination In cooler temperate zones. Sow in flats or plugs 8-12 weeks before spring field planting. In warmer zones (e.g. southern U.S.), can be sown direct in field. Cultivation similar to bell peppers, except longer, warmer season required (65-80 days). Easily killed by frost. Excess nitrogen feeding will reduce fruit production. Irrigation necessary in drier areas; can improve yields 6-fold.
Field spacing: 90-130cm between rows x 30-60cm within rows.
Yield: fresh fruit 8-15t/ha, dry fruit 2t/ha (year 1).
Pests: aphid, ground beetle, pepper weevil
Diseases: xanthomonas bacterial spot, anthracnose, and many others.
Buyers want: varies greatly depending on the market.
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Sowing rate: 10-25g/1000plants.
Planting: sow 10-12 weeks before sale. Sow in flats or plugs. Mostly sold in 4- or 6-packs in spring like bedding annuals, or in pots.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite, aphid
Diseases: few problems.
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Rosemary
(Rosmarinus officinalis ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (leaf); (herb);
Market size: Most commercial product is from wildcrafted sources. Cultivated acreage is 200 hectares (North America); world acreage unknown
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained; pH 6.0-7.5
Crop duration: 10-20 years
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Sowing rate: 1.5-3 kg/ha (direct), 0.2-0.6kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing not recommended because seeds are slow to germinate and seedlings are slow to establish. Sow in seedflats 20 weeks before field spring planting. Germination can be enhanced by exposing seedflat to 24-27°C for 1 week and then lower to 18°C for germination. Where rosemary is not hardy growers dig up plants and overwinter in cool greenhouses. Named cultivars must be grown from cuttings; seed only available for standard species.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 25-50cm within rows.
Yield: fresh herb 2000kg/ha (years 2-20).
Pests: no data
Diseases: root rot.
Buyers want: dried leaf minimum volatile oil 1.2%, maximum foreign matter 10%, maximum woody stems 2%, maximum ash 7%.
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Sowing rate: 10-15g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow in seedflats 22 weeks before sale in 10cm pots.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, scale, mealybug
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Sage
(Salvia officinalis ) |
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Market
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Products: (herb); (herb, sprouts); (herb);
Market size: 160,000 hectares (world), 2,400 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 125 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, rich, light or heavy, pH 6-6.5
Crop duration: 4-5 years
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Sowing rate: 5-15 kg/ha (direct), 0.5-2kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring or sow in plugs 8 weeks before field planting. Trim plants to 15 cm in early spring to encourage new shoots. 'Die-back' occurs in heavy soils that do not drain well.
Field spacing: 50-75cm between rows x 30-50cm within rows.
Yield: dresh herb 10-20t/ha, dry herb 2.5-5t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: few problems with pests
Diseases: verticillium wilt, oidium powdery mildew.
Buyers want: minimum volatile oil 1.5%, maximum ash 8-12%, maximum foreign matter 3%.
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Sowing rate: 20-30g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or flats 12-14 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4-6 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite, mealybug
Diseases: damping-off, powdery mildew.
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St. Johnswort
(Hypericum perfoliatum ) |
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Market
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Products: (herb); (herb);
Market size: 2,400 hectares (world), 800 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices down, volume down
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Culture |
Seed density: 7,000-10,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, dry, pH 6-7
Crop duration: 2-3 years
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Sowing rate: 1-1.5kg/ha (direct), 0.1-0.5kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing has been tried with success, but seedlings are slow to establish and weed control is a problem. Sow direct in field in spring. Or, sow indirect in plugs 8 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 20-90cm between rows x 20-30cm within rows.
Yield: 1000-1200kg/ha (years 2-3).
Pests: chrysolina beetle, nematode
Diseases: colletotrichum anthracnose. Chrysolina beetle has become a serious problem is some areas after several years of cultivation. Serious anthracnose damage has been reported in areas where St. Johnswort has been cultivated for several years. There is evidence of a correlation between chrysolina infestation and anthracnose.
Buyers want: minimum 0.3% hypericin, maximum 5-8% ash, 2% foreign matter, 10% loss on drying.
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Sowing rate: 2g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs 10-12 weeks prior to sale. anthracnose disease (reddening of foliage and dieback) is a serious problem in plug production; avoid overwatering and watering late in day. Anthracnose spreads by unknown vector; may be insect or splashing water.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 2-4 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: colletotrichum anthracnose.
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Savory
(Satureja hortensis, S. montana) |
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Market
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Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 800 hectares (world), 320 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 1700-2600 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained
Crop duration: S. hortensis 1 year; S. montana 3-6 years
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Sowing rate: S. hortensis 6-20 kg/ha (direct); S. montana 6 kg/ha (direct), 0.2-1kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in spring. S. montana best sown in plugs 8 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: S. hortensis 15-90cm between rows x 15-20cm within rows; S. montana 30-60cm x 17-20cm.
Yield: S. hortensis dry herb 2500-5000kg/ha, oil 30kg/ha (year 1); S. montana dry herb 1-3t/ha (years 2-6).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: No data.
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Sowing rate: 2-5g/1000plants.
Planting: S. hortensis can be sown direct in pots, 6 weeks before sale. Sow S. montana in plugs 12 weeks before sale.
Seeds to saleable plants: S. hortensis 6 weeks.
Seeds to finished plugs: S. montana 4-6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: S. montana 8 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite, aphid
Diseases: few problems.
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Scullcap
(Scutellaria lateriflora, S. baicalensis) |
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Market
|
Products: (herb – S. lateriflora, root – S. baicalensis);
Market size: 5,000 hectares (world), 400 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: S. lateriflora 3400; S. baicalensis 550 seeds/gram
Exposure: sun or partial shade.
Soil: fertile, damp, light, well-drained, pH 6-7
Crop duration: 3-4 years
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Sowing rate: S. lateriflora 1-1.5 kg/ha (direct), 0.1-1kg/ha (indirect); S. baicalensis 8-12 kg/ha (direct), 0.3-2kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: S. lateriflora best sown in plugs 8 weeks before field planting; herb harvested in 3-4 years. S. baicalensis best sown direct in field in spring; root harvested in 3-4 years in spring or autumn.
Field spacing: 15-60cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: no data (years 3-4).
Pests: no data
Diseases: no data.
Buyers want: presence of scutellarin in S. lateriflora, baicalin in S. baicalensis.
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Sowing rate: 5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs 15 weeks before sale. Very sensitive to overwatering.
Seeds to finished plugs: 10-12 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4 weeks.
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
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Sorrel
(Rumex acetosa, R. acetosella, R. scutatus ) |
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Market
|
Products: (leaf); (leaf);
Market size: 400 hectares (world), 140 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: S. acetosa 1000; S. acetosella 2,200, S. scutatus 700 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun or partial shade
Soil: cool, moist, acidic
Crop duration: 2-3 years
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Sowing rate: S. acetosa 3kg/ha (direct), 0.5kg/ha; S. acetosella 2kg/ha (direct), 0.3kg/ha (indirect); S. scutatus 5kg/ha (direct), 1kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in spring. Or, sow in plugs 6-8 weeks before field planting. Flowering stocks should be removed in S. acetosa, or use non-flowering variety 'Profusion'.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 30cm within rows.
Yield: no data (years 1-3).
Pests: unidentified insect puncturing leaves in R. acetosa, slugs
Diseases: leaf spot, puccinia rust, aster yellows.
Buyers want: no data.
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Sowing rate: S. acetosa 5g/1000plants; S. acetosella 2g/1000plants; S. scutatus 7g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots 10 weeks before sale. Or, sow in plugs 10-12 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6-8weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 2-4 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, aphid, slugs
Diseases: few problems.
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Alfalfa
(Medicago sativa ) |
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Market
|
Products: (seeds, leaf, herb); (herb, sprouts)
Market size: (excluding acreage planted for fodder): 12,000 hectares (world); 5,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices and acreage up
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Culture |
Seed density: 350 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained; pH 6.0-7.5
Crop duration: 1-4 years
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|
(herb) |
Sowing rate: 9-13kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring, broadcast or sow in rows, 15-30cm apart. Two or more cuts at bud stage possible; last cut 6 weeks before killing frost. Heavy potash and phosphorus feeder.
Yield: dry herb 8-10,000kg/ha (years 1-4).
Pests: weevil, leafminer, leafhopper, snout beetle
Diseases: verticillium wilt, leafspot, phytophthora root rot.
Buyers want: organic product.
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(sprouts) |
Planting: soak seeds overnight; drain, keep moist. Ready in 3-5 days.
Yield: 4kg(sprouts)/kg(seeds).
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Arnica
(A. montana, A. chamissonis) |
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Market
|
Products: (flower, root); (flower);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 160 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume down
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Culture |
Seed density: 700-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, humus-rich, pH 7 (A. chamissonis), pH 4.5-6 (A. montana)
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 1-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing not recommended. Sow in seedflats or plugs. Sow A. montana 16-20 weeks before transplanting to field; sow A. chamissonis 12 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 15-60cm between rows x 15-20cm within rows.
Harvest: flower (years 2-5), root (year 3 or 4).
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: chlorosis (yellow leaves) in A. montana caused by alkaline soil.
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Sowing rate: 8-10g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in seedflats or plugs 20 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8 weeks.
Pests: few problems, whitefly occasionally
Diseases: few problems.
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Lemon Balm
(Melissa officinalis) |
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Market
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Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 75 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 2000 seeds/gram
Exposure: sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained clay or sandy loam, pH 6 to 7.5
Crop duration: 2-4 years
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Sowing rate: 7-9kg/ha (direct), 250-400g/ha (indirect, in plugs).
Planting: sowing in plugs in greenhouse in early spring till mid-summer is most common method; sow 6-8 weeks before transplanting to field. Direct sowing is not as common because weed control is more difficult; sow in early spring or late fall (to come up next spring).
Field spacing: 50-75cm between rows x 18-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry herb 5000kg/ha, fresh herb 10-25t/ha (years 1-3).
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: erisyphe powdery mildew, septoria blight, puccinia rust.
Buyers want: dry carefully to conserve oil in dried herb.
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Sowing rate: 3-5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in flats or plugs 11-14 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spidermite, thrip
Diseases: mildew.
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Basil
(Ocimum basilicum, and others ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf, herb); (herb); (oil);
Market size: 10,000 hectares (world), 1,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 500-1000 (O. gratissimum 2600, O. kilamandscharicum 2800, O. sanctum 1500-2500) seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: rich, well-drained
Crop duration: 1 year (O. basilicum), 1-3 years (others)
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Sowing rate: 20kg/ha (direct); 3-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in spring when nighttime temperatures exceed 10°C; or sow in flats or plugs 8 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 15-25cm within rows.
Yield: fresh herb 15,000kg/ha, dry herb 1,500-2,000kg/ha, oil 30kg/ha (year 1)
Pests: aphids, thrips
Diseases: O. basilicum varieties are highly susceptible to fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum) disease. Disease persists in soil for several years. Commercial field plantings should be sown with fusarium-tolerant Nufar F1. Hydroponic operations may choose fusarium-free varieties if equipment and facilities are free of fusarium (spreads by contaminated seeds and equipment). Other basil species (e.g. O. americanum and O. gratissimum) are fusarium-tolerant.
Buyers want: not less than 0.4% essential oil in dried product.
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Sowing rate: 3-4g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in final pots, or in plugs and later transplant to final pots. Nighttime temperature must not go below 10°C.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, thrips, aphids
Diseases: fusarium (see above).
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Bay Laurel
(Laurus nobilis ) |
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Market
|
Products: (leaf); (leaf);
Market size: 2,000 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 1 seeds/gram
Exposure: sheltered position in full or half sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, moist
Crop duration: 20-50 years
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Sowing rate: 30-60kg/ha
Planting: sow stratified seeds in beds or flats.
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: leaves dried flat for visual appearance.
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Sowing rate: 5kg/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or flats in March or April.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks (after stratification).
Plugs to saleable plants: 10 weeks to a year.
Pests: whitefly, scale, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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Borage
(Borago officinalis ) |
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Market
|
Products: (seed, herb, flower, root); (herb, flower, root), (seed);
Market size: 5,000 hectares (world); 2,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, acreage up
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Culture |
Seed density: 50 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: best in well-drained, fertile, moist soil, but tolerates most soils, pH 5-8
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 5-17 kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in late spring in rows 45-90cm apart, 30-45cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 300kg/ha; fresh flower 1,000-5,000kg/ha; seed 90-450kg/ha.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: 24% gamma lineolenic acid content in seed oil.
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Sowing rate: 50-80g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots or plugs.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
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Burdock
(Arctium lappa) |
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Market
|
Products: (root, leaf); (root);
Market size: 3,000 hectares (world), 170 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 60-110 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or part sun
Soil: deep, loose, humus-rich, pH 6-8
Crop duration: 1-2 years
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Sowing rate: 4 kg/ha (direct), 1.5kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring. Or, sow in beds or plugs and transplant to field in spring. For use as fresh vegetable, dig first year roots when young and tender at 3-5 months. For dry root production, dig in fall of second year.
Field spacing: 45-90cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry root 2,000kg/ha (years 2 or 3).
Pests: few problems, grasshopper
Diseases: few problems.
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Sowing rate: 20g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs 9-10 weeks before sale.
Seeds to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Calendula
(C. officinalis) |
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Market
|
Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 880 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 150 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained; can tolerate poor soil with low nitrogen.
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 3-9kg/ha (direct), 1kg/ha (indirect in plugs).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring or autumn; or sow in plugs 4-6 weeks before field planting. Seeds need light to germinate; cover seeds lightly or press in soil only.
Field spacing: 20-70cm between rows x 10-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 1-2,000kg/ha, fresh flower 6-9,000kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: blister-beetle, cabbage-looper, caterpillar, leafhopper
Diseases: leaf spot, aster-yellows.
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Sowing rate: 15g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or direct in pots 10-12 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 4-6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, aphid, thrip, mealybug
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Caraway
(Carum carvi) |
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Market
|
Products: (seed); (seed)
Market size: 19,000 hectares (world), 2,500 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 350-400 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, pH 6-7.8.
Crop duration: 1-2 years (depending on variety)
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Sowing rate: 8-11 kg/ha.
Planting: sow standard biennial type direct in field late June or early July; harvest following year in August. Sow annual type in May (suited for warmer regions with 5-6 frost-free months). Sometimes sown with annual cover crops such as coriander, dill, mustard the first year.
Field spacing: 10-50cm between rows x 4-15cm within rows.
Yield: seed 600-3,000kg/ha, oil 4.5-7kg/ha (year 1 or 2, depending on variety).
Pests: leafhopper
Diseases: aster yellows.
Buyers want: seed minimum 3% oil, maximum 12% moisture.
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Catnip
(Nepeta cataria ) |
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Market
|
Products: (herb, leaf);
Market size: 2,400 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 1500-1600 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or partial sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, sandy, pH 6.5
Crop duration: 2-5 years
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Sowing rate: 12 kg/ha (direct), 1kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring or late fall. Or, sow in plugs 8-10 weeks before field planting. Seed needs light to germinate; sow shallow 2-4mm deep.
Field spacing: 45-90cm between rows x 30-40cm within rows.
Harvest: leaf, herb (years 2-5).
Yield: dry herb 3-6t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
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Sowing rate: 3g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or seedflats 12-15 weeks before sale. Sow 2-4mm deep.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8-10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3-5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
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Chamomile
(Matricaria recutita, Chamaemelum nobile ) |
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Market
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Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 40,000 hectares (world), 4,800 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 10,000-18,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained, moist to dry
Crop duration: 1 year (M. recutita), 2-3 years (C. nobile)
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Sowing rate: 3-4 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect)
Planting: german (M. recutita) is sown direct in field in spring or fall. Fall sowings germinate following spring. Roman (C. nobile) is sown direct or indirect in plugs which are later planted in field. Surface sow only (needs light to germinate). Hand harvesting flowers problematic in areas where labour cost is high; mechanical harvesting still unproven.
Field spacing: 10-50cm between rows x 10-25cm within rows, or broadcast sown.
Yield: dry flower 350-500kg/ha (M. recutita; year 1), 600-1000 kg/ha (C. nobile; years 1-3).
Pests: cnephasia moth
Diseases: aster yellows.
Buyers want: 0.4% or more volatile oil.
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Sowing rate: 1g/1000plants.
Planting: german (M. recutita) not normally sold in pots; roman (C. nobile) and its varieties are sold in pots or plugs. Seeds need light to germinate; surface sow only.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4-6 weeks.
Pests: aphid, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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Chives
(Allium schoenoprasum, A. tuberosum ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf, flower); (leaf, flower);
Market size: 24,000 hectares (world), 3,200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 750 (A. schoenoprasum), 200-300 (A. tuberosum) seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, humus-rich
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 2-3 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring, or sow indirect in plugs 12-16 weeks before field planting. Field must be free of quackgrass otherwise harvests will be contaminated.
Field spacing: 30cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: fresh leaf 10-20t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: aphid
Diseases: puccinia rust, downy mildew.
Buyers want: good green colour (dry leaf).
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Sowing rate: 5-20g/1000plants (A. schoenoprasum), 50g/1000plants (A. tuberosum)
Planting: sow 10-15 seeds per plug or pot, or sow same amount direct in pots.
Seeds to saleable plants: 24-30 weeks.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12-16 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 11 weeks.
Pests: aphid, thrip
Diseases: few problems.
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Comfrey
(Symphytum officinale, S. x uplandicum) |
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Market
|
Products: (leaf, root); (root, herb);
Market size: 1,700 hectares (world), 240 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 90-100 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or part sun
Soil: moist, wet or dry
Crop duration: 2-5 years
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Sowing rate: 600-900g/ha (indirect).
Planting: although seed can be sown direct, the high cost of seed dictates indirect sowing in plugs or seedbed and transplanting to field. Root cuttings (12,000/ha) of named cultivars (e.g. Bocking No. 14) recommended over seed.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 90cm within rows.
Yield: dry leaf 12t/ha (years 2-5), dry root 1,800kg/ha (year 3, 4 or 5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: comfrey rust.
Buyers want: low pyrrolizidine alkaloid content, particularly echimidine; leaf should be cut early to avoid alkaloid buildup.
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Sowing rate: 50-70g/1000plants.
Planting: sow S. officinale in plugs or seedflats 12-14 weeks before sale. S. x uplandicum and ornamental varieties are propagated by division or root cutting.
Seeds to saleable plants: 12 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, aphid
Diseases: comfrey rust.
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Coriander, Cilantro
(Coriandrum sativum) |
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Market
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Products: (seed); (herb); (seed, herb);
Market size: 600,000 hectares (world), 5,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 110-150 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun (seed), full or half sun (fresh herb)
Soil: deep, fertile, light or heavy, well-drained, pH 6.5-7.5
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 25 kg/ha (seed), 80 kg/ha (fresh herb).
Planting: for seed and seed oil production, sow direct in spring. For fresh herb (cilantro) and herb oil production sow early spring and fall; will bolt in hot weather.
Field spacing: 50-60cm between rows x 11-13cm between plants (seed), 20-25cm between rows x 8-10cm (fresh herb).
Yield: seed 900-1,500kg/ha, fresh herb 10-12t/ha, oil 1-9kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: thrip
Diseases: asters yellow, erysiphe powdery mildew, puccinia rust, pseudamonas, and sclerotina.
Buyers want: less than 12% moisture.
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Sowing rate: 200g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots; do not transplant – root disturbance causes plants to bolt early.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: aphid, thrip, mite, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Dandelion
(Taraxacum officinale) |
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Market
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Products: (root, herb); (leaf)
Market size: 7,000 hectares (world); 500 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 1200-1900 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: most soils
Crop duration: 2 years (root), 1-4 years (fresh leaf)
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Sowing rate: 1-3kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring or late summer. Fresh leaf gathered as vegetable spring, summer and fall. Herb for drying harvested spring or summer. Roots dug late fall.
Field spacing: 45cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: dry root 1100-1700kg/ha (year 2).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: water-soluble extractive not less than 30%.
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Dill
(Anethum graveolens, A. sowa ) |
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Market
|
Products: (seed, herb); (leaf); (leaf, seed);
Market size: 37,000 hectares (world), 4,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices same, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 400-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, moderately rich, loose soil, pH 5.5-6.5
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 9-12 kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in spring.
Field spacing: 25-50cm between rows; thin to 10cm within rows for fresh herb production or 2-3cm within rows for seed production.
Yield: seed 600-900kg/ha, fresh herb 2500-5000kg/ha, dried herb 1000kg/ha, oil 50-110kg/ha.
Pests: aphid, tarnished plant bug
Diseases: powdery mildew, leafspot, aster yellows.
Buyers want: good green colour (dried leaf).
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Sowing rate: 15-40g/1000pots.
Planting: do not transplant; sow direct in pots, 8-20 seeds per pot.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: aphid
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Echinacea
(Echinacea purpurea, E. angustifolia, E. pallida ) |
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Market
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Products: (root, herb, flower, seed); (herb);
Market size: 16,000 hectares (world), 4,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices down, acreage up; market for E. purpurea herb is weak.
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Culture |
Seed density: 160-500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained, pH 6-7.5
Crop duration: 3-4 years
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Sowing rate: 14-18 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: E. purpurea seeds do not require pretreatment. Can be started in plugs and transplanted to the field, which is the preferred method, or can be sown direct in the field. Sow E. purpurea 100-120 days before field planting; sow E. angustifolia and E. pallida 150 days before planting. E. angustifolia and E. pallida germination benefits from pretreatment; stratify at 5°C for 4-12 weeks with light. Pretreatment with Ethrel (1 millimolar for 2 weeks), or with bleach (1% for 10 min.) improves E. angustifolia germination.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 20-45cm within rows.
Yield: E. purpurea herb 6,500-11,000kg/ha (years 2-4); E. purpurea root 1000kg/ha (year 4); E. angustifolia root 1100kg/ha (year 4); no data for E. pallida root.
Pests: leafhopper
Diseases: aster yellows (spread by leafhoppers), sclerotinia stem and root rot, botrytis.
Buyers want: certificate of botanical identity required for E. angustifolia; echinacoside 1.4% (roots).
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Sowing rate: 10g/1000plants.
Planting: sow 14 weeks (E. purpurea) to 22 weeks (E. angustifolia, E. pallida) before sale. Stratify or pretreat E. angustifolia and E. pallida seed before sowing (see above).
Seeds to finished plugs: 8-12 weeks (after pretreatment).
Plugs to saleable plants: 6-10 weeks.
Pests: few problems, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Elecampane
(Inula helenium ) |
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Market
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Products: (root); (root);
Market size: 800 hectares (world), 25 ha (North America).
Prospects: prices same, volume same
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Culture |
Seed density: 600-800 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: moist, deep, well-drained
Crop duration: 2 years.
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Sowing rate: 400-600g/ha (direct); 5g/1000plants (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing not recommended. Start in plugs 8 weeks before spring or late summer field planting.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 45cm within rows.
Yield: 2500kg/ha (year 2).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: erysiphe powdery mildew (late summer), ramularia leafspot, puccinia rust.
Buyers want: not less than 1.8% volatile oil, not more than 6-8% ash, not less than 27% water-soluble extractive, not more than 2% foreign matter.
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Sowing rate: 5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs, seedflats or seed beds. Germination in 4-7 days.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 2-6 weeks.
Pests: spider mite, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Fennel
(Foeniculum vulgare) |
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Market
|
Products: (seed); (leaf, bulb); (herb);
Market size: 70,000 hectares (world), 7,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 200-300 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, deep, moderately fertile, pH 7-8.
Crop duration: 2-3 years (florence fennel, 1 year)
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Sowing rate: 4-6kg/ha (direct), 30g/1000plants (indirect).
Planting: sow sweet fennel direct; bronze direct or indirect; florence indirect.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: seed 1000-1600kg/ha (years 2-3), fresh herb 8-10t/ha (year 1-3), dried herb 1.5-2.5t/ha (year 1-3), seed oil 40-75kg/ha.
Pests: aphid, lygus tarnished plant bug
Diseases: sclerotinia stemrot, rhizoctonia damping-off, erwinia soft rot.
Buyers want: not less than 2-4% volatile oil.
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Sowing rate: 30g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots or in plugs. Does not transplant well; best to sow direct.
Seeds to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3 weeks.
Pests: aphid
Diseases: damping-off.
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Fenugreek
(Trigonella foenum-graecum) |
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Market
|
Products: (seeds, leaf, herb); (herb, sprouts); (seed)
Market size: 90,000 hectares (world), 7,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 100 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, warm soil
Crop duration: 1 year.
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Sowing rate: 25-35kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in spring. Broadcast or in close rows.
Field spacing: 20cm between rows x 10-20cm within rows.
Yield: seed 700-900kg/ha, dried forage 2-10t/ha.
Pests: no data
Diseases: no data.
Buyers want: swelling index not less than 6, foreign matter not more than 2-5%, ash not more than 5-6% (seed).
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Feverfew
(Tanacetum parthenium) |
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Market
|
Products: (herb);
Market size: 1,300 hectares (world), 160 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume down
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Culture |
Seed density: 7,500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained, dry soil
Crop duration: 1-2 years
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Sowing rate: 1-1.5 kg/ha (direct); 0.5g/1000plants.
Planting: plugs preferred over direct sowing because seeds very small. Sow plugs 8 weeks before spring planting date. Don't allow to go to seed to avoid winterkill. Frequent fertilization with low nitrogen fertilizer is beneficial. Long days trigger flowering. Short lived perennial; some growers treat as annual.
Field spacing: 20-90cm between rows x 10-20cm within rows.
Yield: 300-5000kg/ha (years 1-2).
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: minimum 0.4-0.8% parthenolide.
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Sowing rate: 0.5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow 14-16 weeks before sales in flats or plug trays.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6-8 weeks.
Pests: aphid, whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
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Scented Geranium
(Pelargonium spp. ) |
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Market
|
Products: (leaf); (leaf);
Market size: 4,000 hectares (world), 400 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 360-450 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, neutral to alkaline
Crop duration: 1 year temperate areas, 3-5 year in tropical areas.d o Planting: all commercially important varieties are propagated by cuttings. Plugs planted in spring after last frost date. FieldSpacing: 60-100cm between rows x 20-50cm within rows. Yield: fresh leaf 13-30t/ha, oil 13-17kg/ha (years 1-5). PestsDiseases: aphid, caterpillar / alternaria leaf spot.
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Seeds/ |
Planting: all commercially important varieties are propagated by cuttings. Plugs planted in spring after last frost date.
Field spacing: 60-100cm between rows x 20-50cm within rows.
Yield: fresh leaf 13-30t/ha, oil 13-17kg/ha (years 1-5).
Pests: aphid, caterpillar
Diseases: alternaria leaf spot.
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Sowing rate: 30-80g/1000 plants.
Planting: commercial propagation is by cutting only.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6-8 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, geranium and peach aphid, mite, mealybug, scale
Diseases: various leaf spots including xanthomonas, alternaria, botrytis.
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Gingko
(Ginkgo biloba ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (seed);
Market size: 5,000 hectares (world), 600 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 1 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: rich, well-drained, moist soil
Crop duration: 20-50+ years
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Sowing rate: 2-4kg/hectare.
Planting: seeds require stratification, 1-2 months warm, then 1-2 months cold, then sow in spring. Common nursery practice is to sow without stratification in outdoor seed beds in fall. Seedlings shaded for 2-3 years and fertilized with manure. Seedlings transplanted to permanent location when 7-8 years old. Trees kept short (2m) and spaced close (2-3m) in commercial plantations for medicinal leaf production; otherwise allowed to grow higher and spaced further for seed production. Slow growing. Leaves harvested in early fall as they begin to turn yellow; dried in sun. Fruits harvested late fall, seeds cleaned and roasted.
Field spacing: 3-5m apart (2-3m within rows for leaf production).
Yield: no data (leaf years 8-50, seed years 20-50).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: tolerates pollution.
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Sowing rate: 2-4kg/1000 plants.
Planting: stratify seed warm (1-2 months) followed by cold (1-2 months). Sow in deep plugs. Keep lightly shaded.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks to 1 year.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8 weeks (10cm pots), 2-5 years (larger plants).
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Ginseng
(Panax quinquefolius, P. ginseng; Eleutherococcus senticosus) |
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Market
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Products: (root)
Market size: Panax 70,000 hectares (world), 7,400 ha (North America)
Prospects: Panax prices down, volume up. Prospects for woodsgrown Panax much better than shadecloth grown.
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Culture |
Seed density: Panax 15; Eleutherococcus 100 seeds/gram
Exposure: Panax 70% shade; Eleutherococcus 30-50% shade
Soil: well-drained, sandy or clay loam, in raised beds, pH 5.5-6.0
Crop duration: Panax 3-4 years (shadecloth), 4-8 years (woodsgrown); Eleutherococcus 6-12 years
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Sowing rate: 40-100 kg/ha (shadecloth), 10-20 kg/ha (woodsgrown).
Planting: Panax seeds stratified one year. Sow stratified seeds in seedbeds and transplant seedlings to raised beds in years 1-2, or sow direct in raised beds. Mulch with straw. Remove shadecloth over winter. Eleutherococcus seeds need at least cycles of warm-cold stratification; best results obtained when sown in flats in fall and left out over winter under mulch.
Field spacing: Panax 15-20cm between rows x 15-20cm within rows, further apart in woodsgrown plantings; Eleutherococcus 60-100cm apart.
Yield: Panax (shadecloth) 3400kg/ha (years 3-4).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: Panax alternaria leaf blight, rhizoctonia wilt, phytophthora, powdery mildew; Eleutherococcus few problems.
Buyers want: ginsenosides not less than 1.5-2%, ash not more than 4-8%.
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Sowing rate: Panax 150g/1000 plants; Eleutherococcus 250g/1000plants.
Planting: sow stratified Panax seeds in deep plugs, 2-4 seeds per plug, or sow in seed flats. Provide shade, keep cool and well ventilated.
Seeds to finished plugs: Panax 6 months (after stratification).
Plugs to saleable plants: Panax 1 year.
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: Panax alternaria, rhizoctonia.
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Goldenseal
(Hydrastis canadensis) |
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Market
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Products: (root);
Market size: 17,000 hectares (world), 7,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices down, volume up. Majority of market supplied by wildcrafted material, but wild stocks are becoming depleted and now listed on CITES.
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Culture |
Seed density: 50-55 seeds/gram
Exposure: 50-75% Shade
Soil: well-drained, deep, fertile soil, pH 5.5-6.5, in raised beds or on gentle slope.
Crop duration: 3-6 years
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Sowing rate: 10kg/ha (direct), 100g/1000 plants (indirect); rootlets 100,000/ha.
Planting: growers prefer rootlets over seeds because they are more reliable and quicker to harvestable size (3 years); however, seed quality has improved recently and cost of seeds is much less than rootlets. Seeds take 5-6 years to get harvestable roots. Seeds must not dry out; must be sown immediately after harvest in late summer to come up following spring. Avoid straw mulch and fertilize lightly.
Field spacing: 15-40cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: 900-2300kg/ha (year 3-6).
Pests: slugs
Diseases: alternaria, phytophthora, rhizoctonia, botrytis leafspot, fusarium.
Buyers want: min. alkaloids 3.5%.
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Sowing rate: seed 100g/1000plants, rootlets 300-1000/1000 plants.
Planting: for potted plant production, best to start with rootlets. Pot up rootlets 4 weeks before sale. Provide cool, shaded, and well-ventilated conditions; will not tolerate full sun and high humidity.
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: alternaria and other diseases common in potted plants in greenhouses.
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Lavender
(Lavandula angustifolia, L. x intermedia) |
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Market
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Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 9,000 hectares (world), 1,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 850-1300 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained, deep, not too rich, pH 6.5-7.5
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 3-6kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: lavandins (L. x intermedia; e.g. 'Provence' and 'Grosso'), best for commercial flower and oil production, are propagated vegetatively only. Only english types are available in seed form, but seed grown material may not be uniform enough for field production. Direct sowing not recommended; germination is too slow (15-30 days). Sow in seedflats 12-16 weeks before outdoor planting; transplant to plugs at 4-6 weeks, then transplant to field.
Field spacing: 60-120cm between rows x 25-120cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 500-1500kg/ha (years 2-5), oil 8-32kg/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: caterpillar, nematode
Diseases: phoma scab, septoria leaf spot, armillaria root rot.
Buyers want: 1.3% volatile oil or higher, good colour.
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Sowing rate: 5-10g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow 20-26 weeks before sale. Germination of english types (L. angustifolia) is frequently below 50%; scarification or freezing of seedflat can sometimes improve germination.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12-16 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8-10 weeks.
Pests: mealybug, whitefly, spider mite, scale
Diseases: few problems.
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Lemongrass
(Cymbopogon citratus, C. flexuosus) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (stem); (herb);
Market size: 50,000 hectares (world), 2,600 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: C. flexuosus 2000-2400 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, sandy loam, pH 5.5-6.5
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: C. flexuosus 5-10kg/ha (direct).
Planting: C. citratus grown from cuttings only. Sow C. flexuosus in spring. Heavy feeder. Oil quality of C. citratus highest at 18-24 months.
Field spacing: C. citratus 100cm between rows x 45cm within rows; broadcast C. flexuosus, or sow in rows 60-100cm apart.
Yield: C. citratus dry herb 4-6t/ha, oil 30-40kg/ha (years 1-5); C. flexuosus dry herb 10-15t/ha, 80kg/ha (years 1-5).
Pests: no data
Diseases: C. citratus himantia web blight, myriogenospora tangletop, helminthosperium eyespot, papularia.
Buyers want: high citral content.
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Sowing rate: 5g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow C. flexuosus in plugs 13-14 weeks before sale. C. citratus grown from cuttings only.
Seeds to finished plugs: 10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3-8 weeks.
Pests: spider mite, whitefly, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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Licorice
(Glycyrrhiza spp. ) |
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Market
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Products: (root);
Market size: 45,000 hectares (world), 480 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices down, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 400-600 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: deep, rich, moist, sandy, slightly alkaline, pH 7.3-7.8
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 3-4 kg/ha (direct), 5-10g/1000 plants (indirect).
Planting: soak seeds 2-3 hours in 30°C water or scarify before planting to weaken hard seed coat. Sow direct in spring or in deep plugs 12-16 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 70-90cm between rows x 45-90cm within rows.
Yield: G. glabra dry root 10-20t/ha (year 3-5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: uromyces rust, cercospora blight.
Buyers want: minimum 4% glycyrrhizinic acid, minimum 20% water soluble extractive.
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Sowing rate: 5-10g/1000plants.
Planting: soak seed in warm water (30°C) for 2-3 hours or scarify before sowing. Sow in flats or deep plugs 22-26 weeks before sale. Highly susceptible to damping-off; preventative application of damping-off control recommended.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12-16 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: damping-off.
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Lobelia
(Lobelia inflata ) |
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Market
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Products: (seed, herb);
Market size: 9,000 hectares (world), 1,700 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 30,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, rich soil
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 0.2-1kg/ha (direct), 0.1kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow in plugs or seedflats 12 weeks before field planting. Harvest herb when upper flowers are in bloom and lowest flowers have developed seed capsules when lobeline and lobelidine alkaloid content highest.
Field spacing: 30cm between rows x 15cm within rows.
Yield: dry herb 1100kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: wireworms
Diseases: cercospora, phyllosticta and septoria leaf spots.
Buyers want: no data.
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Sowing rate: 0.5g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow in plugs 14 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4-6 weeks.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
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Marjoram
(Origanum majorana) |
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Market
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Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 12,000 hectares (world), 800 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 3,500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, pH 6.5-7.5
Crop duration: 1 year (2-3 years in zone 9+)
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Sowing rate: 5-6kg/ha (direct), 0.2-0.3kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: requires warmth to do well; germinates best above 15°C daytime and 10°C nighttime. Sow direct in warmer zones; or sow indirect in plugs 12 weeks before field planting in cooler zones.
Field spacing: 30-40cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: 2.5-3t/ha (years 1-3).
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: botrytis gray mold, alternaria, puccinia rust, septoria.
Buyers want: no data.
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Sowing rate: 1g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or direct in pots 6-8 weeks before sale. Minimum 15°C days, 10°C nights.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 2-4 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite, thrip
Diseases: few problems.
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Chinese Milkvetch, Astragalus
(Astragalus membranaceus) |
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Market
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Products: (root);
Market size: 1,700 hectares (world), 560 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 130-160 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, deep, moist, alkaline
Crop duration: 4-5 years
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Sowing rate: 6-8 kg/ha (direct), 3-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: can be started in deep plugs, but suffers transplant shock easily. Probably better to sow direct in field, in early spring or fall. Scarification helps speed germination. Harvested in fall, lateral roots trimmed, dried partially and then sliced 0.5 cm thick, and then further dried.
Field spacing: 75-100cm between rows x 25cm within rows.
Yield: 7000kg/ha (year 4-5).
Pests: no data
Diseases: unidentified root rot when in wet conditions.
Buyers want: no data.
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Sowing rate: 75g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow in deep plugs 19-20 weeks before sale; transplant before plugs are root-bound. Highly susceptible to mites.
Seeds to finished plugs: 10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 9 weeks.
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: damping-off.
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Mint
(Mentha spp.) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf, herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 240,000 hectares (world), 16,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 17,000-20,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: rich, moist, well-drained, pH 6.5-7
Crop duration: 2-3 years
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Sowing rate: 1 kg/ha (direct), 0.1-0.2kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: commercial plantings propagated vegetatively; seed not suitable because of poor oil quality. Root cuttings planted in early spring or fall. Fields must be rotated every 2-3 years to prevent disease buildup.
Field spacing: 40-90cm between rows x 15-45cm within rows.
Yield: peppermint herb oil 35-125kg/ha, fresh herb 10-25t/ha, dried herb 1-3t/ha (years 2-3).
Pests: nematode, aphid
Diseases: puccinia rust, verticillum wilt, leaf spot, sphaceloma spot anthracnose.
Buyers want: peppermint minimum 1-1.2% volatile oil, not more than 10% leaves spotted with puccinia rust, not more than 5% stems, 2% foreign matter or 11% water.
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Sowing rate: 0.5-1g/1000 plants.
Planting: most cultivars grown from cuttings. Seed material not recommended for pot plant sales.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite, aphid, mealybug
Diseases: rust.
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Nettle
(Urtica dioica ) |
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Market
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Products: (herb, root, leaf, seed);
Market size: 1,600 hectares (world), 240 ha (North America)
Prospects: Prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 6,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun or part shade
Soil: rich, moist, pH 6-7
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 5kg/ha (direct), 0.6kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow in plugs 12 weeks before field planting, or direct in spring.
Field spacing: 30cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: 1000-2000kg/ha (years 3-5).
Pests: no data
Diseases: no data.
Buyers want: maximum 10% stems, 2% other foreign matter, total ash 20%, acid-insoluble ash 4%.
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Sowing rate: 2g/1000 plants (indirect).
Planting: sow in plugs 18 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: spider mite, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Oregano
(Origanum spp. ) |
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Market
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Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 8,000 hectares (world), 2,400 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up Varieties: most oregano is wildcrafted in Europe. In North America, much of the oregano is Lippia graveolens, the mexican variety.
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Culture |
Seed density: 3800-4500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, sandy, dry, pH 6-8
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 2.5-3kg/ha (direct), 0.2-0.5kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: greek variety is best for commercial fresh and dry herb and oil production. Sow direct in spring when soil temperature is at least 15°C, or sow in plugs 6 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 30-40cm between rows x 7-15cm within rows.
Yield: dry herb 1000-3000kg/ha, fresh herb 10-20t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: unspecified fungal diseases can occur in wet weather.
Buyers want: strong scent, good green colour.
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Sowing rate: 0.5-1g/1000 plants.
Planting: most varieties cannot be grown from seeds; only greek variety is raised from seed commercially. Sow in plugs 12 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Parsley
(Petroselinum crispum) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (leaf, root);
Market size: 250,000 hectares (world), 25,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 650-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: tolerates most soils, but rich, well-drained, moist, pH 6-7 is best
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 3-7 kg/ha (direct), 0.5-1.5kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field early spring or fall in warmer zones. Two or three cuts are possible.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 10-20cm within rows.
Yield: fresh herb 5-10t/ha, dry herb 1-2t/ha (year 1).
Pests: carrot root fly
Diseases: septoria and alternaria leaf spot.
Buyers want: good green colour (dry and fresh herb).
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Sowing rate: 2-4g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or direct in pots. Sow 4-5 seeds per plug or 12 per pot.
Seeds to saleable plants: 12 weeks.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite, aphid
Diseases: few problems.
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Chile Pepper
(Capsicum annuum, C. spp.) |
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Market
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Products: (fruit); (fruit);
Market size: 100,000 hectares (world), 10,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 80-250 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained, loam, pH 6.5-7.5
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 10kg/ha (direct), 0.5-1kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: should not follow in soils where pepper, eggplant, tobacco, potato, tomato and other Solanaceae were grown previously. Needs 21-30°C to do well. Minimum 16°C soil temperature required for germination In cooler temperate zones. Sow in flats or plugs 8-12 weeks before spring field planting. In warmer zones (e.g. southern U.S.), can be sown direct in field. Cultivation similar to bell peppers, except longer, warmer season required (65-80 days). Easily killed by frost. Excess nitrogen feeding will reduce fruit production. Irrigation necessary in drier areas; can improve yields 6-fold.
Field spacing: 90-130cm between rows x 30-60cm within rows.
Yield: fresh fruit 8-15t/ha, dry fruit 2t/ha (year 1).
Pests: aphid, ground beetle, pepper weevil
Diseases: xanthomonas bacterial spot, anthracnose, and many others.
Buyers want: varies greatly depending on the market.
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Sowing rate: 10-25g/1000plants.
Planting: sow 10-12 weeks before sale. Sow in flats or plugs. Mostly sold in 4- or 6-packs in spring like bedding annuals, or in pots.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite, aphid
Diseases: few problems.
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Rosemary
(Rosmarinus officinalis ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (leaf); (herb);
Market size: Most commercial product is from wildcrafted sources. Cultivated acreage is 200 hectares (North America); world acreage unknown
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained; pH 6.0-7.5
Crop duration: 10-20 years
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Sowing rate: 1.5-3 kg/ha (direct), 0.2-0.6kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing not recommended because seeds are slow to germinate and seedlings are slow to establish. Sow in seedflats 20 weeks before field spring planting. Germination can be enhanced by exposing seedflat to 24-27°C for 1 week and then lower to 18°C for germination. Where rosemary is not hardy growers dig up plants and overwinter in cool greenhouses. Named cultivars must be grown from cuttings; seed only available for standard species.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 25-50cm within rows.
Yield: fresh herb 2000kg/ha (years 2-20).
Pests: no data
Diseases: root rot.
Buyers want: dried leaf minimum volatile oil 1.2%, maximum foreign matter 10%, maximum woody stems 2%, maximum ash 7%.
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Sowing rate: 10-15g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow in seedflats 22 weeks before sale in 10cm pots.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, scale, mealybug
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Sage
(Salvia officinalis ) |
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Market
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Products: (herb); (herb, sprouts); (herb);
Market size: 160,000 hectares (world), 2,400 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 125 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, rich, light or heavy, pH 6-6.5
Crop duration: 4-5 years
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Sowing rate: 5-15 kg/ha (direct), 0.5-2kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring or sow in plugs 8 weeks before field planting. Trim plants to 15 cm in early spring to encourage new shoots. 'Die-back' occurs in heavy soils that do not drain well.
Field spacing: 50-75cm between rows x 30-50cm within rows.
Yield: dresh herb 10-20t/ha, dry herb 2.5-5t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: few problems with pests
Diseases: verticillium wilt, oidium powdery mildew.
Buyers want: minimum volatile oil 1.5%, maximum ash 8-12%, maximum foreign matter 3%.
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Sowing rate: 20-30g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or flats 12-14 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4-6 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite, mealybug
Diseases: damping-off, powdery mildew.
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St. Johnswort
(Hypericum perfoliatum ) |
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Market
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Products: (herb); (herb);
Market size: 2,400 hectares (world), 800 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices down, volume down
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Culture |
Seed density: 7,000-10,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, dry, pH 6-7
Crop duration: 2-3 years
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Sowing rate: 1-1.5kg/ha (direct), 0.1-0.5kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing has been tried with success, but seedlings are slow to establish and weed control is a problem. Sow direct in field in spring. Or, sow indirect in plugs 8 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 20-90cm between rows x 20-30cm within rows.
Yield: 1000-1200kg/ha (years 2-3).
Pests: chrysolina beetle, nematode
Diseases: colletotrichum anthracnose. Chrysolina beetle has become a serious problem is some areas after several years of cultivation. Serious anthracnose damage has been reported in areas where St. Johnswort has been cultivated for several years. There is evidence of a correlation between chrysolina infestation and anthracnose.
Buyers want: minimum 0.3% hypericin, maximum 5-8% ash, 2% foreign matter, 10% loss on drying.
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Sowing rate: 2g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs 10-12 weeks prior to sale. anthracnose disease (reddening of foliage and dieback) is a serious problem in plug production; avoid overwatering and watering late in day. Anthracnose spreads by unknown vector; may be insect or splashing water.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 2-4 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: colletotrichum anthracnose.
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Savory
(Satureja hortensis, S. montana) |
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Market
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Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 800 hectares (world), 320 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 1700-2600 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained
Crop duration: S. hortensis 1 year; S. montana 3-6 years
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Sowing rate: S. hortensis 6-20 kg/ha (direct); S. montana 6 kg/ha (direct), 0.2-1kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in spring. S. montana best sown in plugs 8 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: S. hortensis 15-90cm between rows x 15-20cm within rows; S. montana 30-60cm x 17-20cm.
Yield: S. hortensis dry herb 2500-5000kg/ha, oil 30kg/ha (year 1); S. montana dry herb 1-3t/ha (years 2-6).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: No data.
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Sowing rate: 2-5g/1000plants.
Planting: S. hortensis can be sown direct in pots, 6 weeks before sale. Sow S. montana in plugs 12 weeks before sale.
Seeds to saleable plants: S. hortensis 6 weeks.
Seeds to finished plugs: S. montana 4-6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: S. montana 8 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite, aphid
Diseases: few problems.
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Scullcap
(Scutellaria lateriflora, S. baicalensis) |
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Market
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Products: (herb – S. lateriflora, root – S. baicalensis);
Market size: 5,000 hectares (world), 400 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: S. lateriflora 3400; S. baicalensis 550 seeds/gram
Exposure: sun or partial shade.
Soil: fertile, damp, light, well-drained, pH 6-7
Crop duration: 3-4 years
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Sowing rate: S. lateriflora 1-1.5 kg/ha (direct), 0.1-1kg/ha (indirect); S. baicalensis 8-12 kg/ha (direct), 0.3-2kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: S. lateriflora best sown in plugs 8 weeks before field planting; herb harvested in 3-4 years. S. baicalensis best sown direct in field in spring; root harvested in 3-4 years in spring or autumn.
Field spacing: 15-60cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: no data (years 3-4).
Pests: no data
Diseases: no data.
Buyers want: presence of scutellarin in S. lateriflora, baicalin in S. baicalensis.
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Sowing rate: 5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs 15 weeks before sale. Very sensitive to overwatering.
Seeds to finished plugs: 10-12 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4 weeks.
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
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Sorrel
(Rumex acetosa, R. acetosella, R. scutatus ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (leaf);
Market size: 400 hectares (world), 140 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: S. acetosa 1000; S. acetosella 2,200, S. scutatus 700 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun or partial shade
Soil: cool, moist, acidic
Crop duration: 2-3 years
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Sowing rate: S. acetosa 3kg/ha (direct), 0.5kg/ha; S. acetosella 2kg/ha (direct), 0.3kg/ha (indirect); S. scutatus 5kg/ha (direct), 1kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in spring. Or, sow in plugs 6-8 weeks before field planting. Flowering stocks should be removed in S. acetosa, or use non-flowering variety 'Profusion'.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 30cm within rows.
Yield: no data (years 1-3).
Pests: unidentified insect puncturing leaves in R. acetosa, slugs
Diseases: leaf spot, puccinia rust, aster yellows.
Buyers want: no data.
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Sowing rate: S. acetosa 5g/1000plants; S. acetosella 2g/1000plants; S. scutatus 7g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots 10 weeks before sale. Or, sow in plugs 10-12 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6-8weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 2-4 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, aphid, slugs
Diseases: few problems.
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Tarragon
(Artemisia dracunculus ) |
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Market
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Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 3,000 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 6200 (russian variety is not recommended) seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: deep, well-drained, fertile, pH 6.5
Crop duration: 2-4 years
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Sowing rate: 0.1kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: seeds not recommended. Seed-grown russian variety does not have flavour. Best grown from vegetatatively-propagated stock.
Field spacing: 45-60cm between rows x 30cm within rows.
Yield: fresh herb 7-18t/ha (years 1-4), dry herb 1500-2600kg/ha (years 1-4).
Pests: puccinia rust
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: good green colour, good anise aroma.
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Sowing rate: 1g/1000plants.
Planting: seed not recommended; start with plugs.
Plugs to saleable plants: 7 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
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Alfalfa
(Medicago sativa ) |
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Market
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Products: (seeds, leaf, herb); (herb, sprouts)
Market size: (excluding acreage planted for fodder): 12,000 hectares (world); 5,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices and acreage up
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Culture |
Seed density: 350 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained; pH 6.0-7.5
Crop duration: 1-4 years
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(herb) |
Sowing rate: 9-13kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring, broadcast or sow in rows, 15-30cm apart. Two or more cuts at bud stage possible; last cut 6 weeks before killing frost. Heavy potash and phosphorus feeder.
Yield: dry herb 8-10,000kg/ha (years 1-4).
Pests: weevil, leafminer, leafhopper, snout beetle
Diseases: verticillium wilt, leafspot, phytophthora root rot.
Buyers want: organic product.
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(sprouts) |
Planting: soak seeds overnight; drain, keep moist. Ready in 3-5 days.
Yield: 4kg(sprouts)/kg(seeds).
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Arnica
(A. montana, A. chamissonis) |
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Market
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Products: (flower, root); (flower);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 160 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume down
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Culture |
Seed density: 700-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, humus-rich, pH 7 (A. chamissonis), pH 4.5-6 (A. montana)
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 1-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing not recommended. Sow in seedflats or plugs. Sow A. montana 16-20 weeks before transplanting to field; sow A. chamissonis 12 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 15-60cm between rows x 15-20cm within rows.
Harvest: flower (years 2-5), root (year 3 or 4).
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: chlorosis (yellow leaves) in A. montana caused by alkaline soil.
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Sowing rate: 8-10g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in seedflats or plugs 20 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8 weeks.
Pests: few problems, whitefly occasionally
Diseases: few problems.
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Lemon Balm
(Melissa officinalis) |
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Market
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Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 75 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 2000 seeds/gram
Exposure: sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained clay or sandy loam, pH 6 to 7.5
Crop duration: 2-4 years
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Sowing rate: 7-9kg/ha (direct), 250-400g/ha (indirect, in plugs).
Planting: sowing in plugs in greenhouse in early spring till mid-summer is most common method; sow 6-8 weeks before transplanting to field. Direct sowing is not as common because weed control is more difficult; sow in early spring or late fall (to come up next spring).
Field spacing: 50-75cm between rows x 18-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry herb 5000kg/ha, fresh herb 10-25t/ha (years 1-3).
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: erisyphe powdery mildew, septoria blight, puccinia rust.
Buyers want: dry carefully to conserve oil in dried herb.
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Sowing rate: 3-5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in flats or plugs 11-14 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spidermite, thrip
Diseases: mildew.
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Basil
(Ocimum basilicum, and others ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf, herb); (herb); (oil);
Market size: 10,000 hectares (world), 1,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 500-1000 (O. gratissimum 2600, O. kilamandscharicum 2800, O. sanctum 1500-2500) seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: rich, well-drained
Crop duration: 1 year (O. basilicum), 1-3 years (others)
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Sowing rate: 20kg/ha (direct); 3-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in spring when nighttime temperatures exceed 10°C; or sow in flats or plugs 8 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 15-25cm within rows.
Yield: fresh herb 15,000kg/ha, dry herb 1,500-2,000kg/ha, oil 30kg/ha (year 1)
Pests: aphids, thrips
Diseases: O. basilicum varieties are highly susceptible to fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum) disease. Disease persists in soil for several years. Commercial field plantings should be sown with fusarium-tolerant Nufar F1. Hydroponic operations may choose fusarium-free varieties if equipment and facilities are free of fusarium (spreads by contaminated seeds and equipment). Other basil species (e.g. O. americanum and O. gratissimum) are fusarium-tolerant.
Buyers want: not less than 0.4% essential oil in dried product.
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Sowing rate: 3-4g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in final pots, or in plugs and later transplant to final pots. Nighttime temperature must not go below 10°C.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, thrips, aphids
Diseases: fusarium (see above).
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Bay Laurel
(Laurus nobilis ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (leaf);
Market size: 2,000 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 1 seeds/gram
Exposure: sheltered position in full or half sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, moist
Crop duration: 20-50 years
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Sowing rate: 30-60kg/ha
Planting: sow stratified seeds in beds or flats.
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: leaves dried flat for visual appearance.
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Sowing rate: 5kg/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or flats in March or April.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks (after stratification).
Plugs to saleable plants: 10 weeks to a year.
Pests: whitefly, scale, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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Borage
(Borago officinalis ) |
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Market
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Products: (seed, herb, flower, root); (herb, flower, root), (seed);
Market size: 5,000 hectares (world); 2,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, acreage up
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Culture |
Seed density: 50 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: best in well-drained, fertile, moist soil, but tolerates most soils, pH 5-8
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 5-17 kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in late spring in rows 45-90cm apart, 30-45cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 300kg/ha; fresh flower 1,000-5,000kg/ha; seed 90-450kg/ha.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: 24% gamma lineolenic acid content in seed oil.
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Sowing rate: 50-80g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots or plugs.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
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Burdock
(Arctium lappa) |
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Market
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Products: (root, leaf); (root);
Market size: 3,000 hectares (world), 170 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 60-110 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or part sun
Soil: deep, loose, humus-rich, pH 6-8
Crop duration: 1-2 years
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Sowing rate: 4 kg/ha (direct), 1.5kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring. Or, sow in beds or plugs and transplant to field in spring. For use as fresh vegetable, dig first year roots when young and tender at 3-5 months. For dry root production, dig in fall of second year.
Field spacing: 45-90cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry root 2,000kg/ha (years 2 or 3).
Pests: few problems, grasshopper
Diseases: few problems.
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Sowing rate: 20g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs 9-10 weeks before sale.
Seeds to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Calendula
(C. officinalis) |
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Market
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Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 880 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 150 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained; can tolerate poor soil with low nitrogen.
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 3-9kg/ha (direct), 1kg/ha (indirect in plugs).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring or autumn; or sow in plugs 4-6 weeks before field planting. Seeds need light to germinate; cover seeds lightly or press in soil only.
Field spacing: 20-70cm between rows x 10-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 1-2,000kg/ha, fresh flower 6-9,000kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: blister-beetle, cabbage-looper, caterpillar, leafhopper
Diseases: leaf spot, aster-yellows.
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Sowing rate: 15g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or direct in pots 10-12 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 4-6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, aphid, thrip, mealybug
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Caraway
(Carum carvi) |
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Market
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Products: (seed); (seed)
Market size: 19,000 hectares (world), 2,500 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 350-400 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, pH 6-7.8.
Crop duration: 1-2 years (depending on variety)
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Sowing rate: 8-11 kg/ha.
Planting: sow standard biennial type direct in field late June or early July; harvest following year in August. Sow annual type in May (suited for warmer regions with 5-6 frost-free months). Sometimes sown with annual cover crops such as coriander, dill, mustard the first year.
Field spacing: 10-50cm between rows x 4-15cm within rows.
Yield: seed 600-3,000kg/ha, oil 4.5-7kg/ha (year 1 or 2, depending on variety).
Pests: leafhopper
Diseases: aster yellows.
Buyers want: seed minimum 3% oil, maximum 12% moisture.
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Catnip
(Nepeta cataria ) |
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Market
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Products: (herb, leaf);
Market size: 2,400 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 1500-1600 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or partial sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, sandy, pH 6.5
Crop duration: 2-5 years
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Sowing rate: 12 kg/ha (direct), 1kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring or late fall. Or, sow in plugs 8-10 weeks before field planting. Seed needs light to germinate; sow shallow 2-4mm deep.
Field spacing: 45-90cm between rows x 30-40cm within rows.
Harvest: leaf, herb (years 2-5).
Yield: dry herb 3-6t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
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Sowing rate: 3g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or seedflats 12-15 weeks before sale. Sow 2-4mm deep.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8-10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3-5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
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Chamomile
(Matricaria recutita, Chamaemelum nobile ) |
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Market
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Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 40,000 hectares (world), 4,800 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 10,000-18,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained, moist to dry
Crop duration: 1 year (M. recutita), 2-3 years (C. nobile)
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Sowing rate: 3-4 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect)
Planting: german (M. recutita) is sown direct in field in spring or fall. Fall sowings germinate following spring. Roman (C. nobile) is sown direct or indirect in plugs which are later planted in field. Surface sow only (needs light to germinate). Hand harvesting flowers problematic in areas where labour cost is high; mechanical harvesting still unproven.
Field spacing: 10-50cm between rows x 10-25cm within rows, or broadcast sown.
Yield: dry flower 350-500kg/ha (M. recutita; year 1), 600-1000 kg/ha (C. nobile; years 1-3).
Pests: cnephasia moth
Diseases: aster yellows.
Buyers want: 0.4% or more volatile oil.
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Sowing rate: 1g/1000plants.
Planting: german (M. recutita) not normally sold in pots; roman (C. nobile) and its varieties are sold in pots or plugs. Seeds need light to germinate; surface sow only.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4-6 weeks.
Pests: aphid, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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Chives
(Allium schoenoprasum, A. tuberosum ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf, flower); (leaf, flower);
Market size: 24,000 hectares (world), 3,200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 750 (A. schoenoprasum), 200-300 (A. tuberosum) seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, humus-rich
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 2-3 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring, or sow indirect in plugs 12-16 weeks before field planting. Field must be free of quackgrass otherwise harvests will be contaminated.
Field spacing: 30cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: fresh leaf 10-20t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: aphid
Diseases: puccinia rust, downy mildew.
Buyers want: good green colour (dry leaf).
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Sowing rate: 5-20g/1000plants (A. schoenoprasum), 50g/1000plants (A. tuberosum)
Planting: sow 10-15 seeds per plug or pot, or sow same amount direct in pots.
Seeds to saleable plants: 24-30 weeks.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12-16 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 11 weeks.
Pests: aphid, thrip
Diseases: few problems.
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Comfrey
(Symphytum officinale, S. x uplandicum) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf, root); (root, herb);
Market size: 1,700 hectares (world), 240 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 90-100 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or part sun
Soil: moist, wet or dry
Crop duration: 2-5 years
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Sowing rate: 600-900g/ha (indirect).
Planting: although seed can be sown direct, the high cost of seed dictates indirect sowing in plugs or seedbed and transplanting to field. Root cuttings (12,000/ha) of named cultivars (e.g. Bocking No. 14) recommended over seed.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 90cm within rows.
Yield: dry leaf 12t/ha (years 2-5), dry root 1,800kg/ha (year 3, 4 or 5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: comfrey rust.
Buyers want: low pyrrolizidine alkaloid content, particularly echimidine; leaf should be cut early to avoid alkaloid buildup.
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Sowing rate: 50-70g/1000plants.
Planting: sow S. officinale in plugs or seedflats 12-14 weeks before sale. S. x uplandicum and ornamental varieties are propagated by division or root cutting.
Seeds to saleable plants: 12 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, aphid
Diseases: comfrey rust.
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Coriander, Cilantro
(Coriandrum sativum) |
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Market
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Products: (seed); (herb); (seed, herb);
Market size: 600,000 hectares (world), 5,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 110-150 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun (seed), full or half sun (fresh herb)
Soil: deep, fertile, light or heavy, well-drained, pH 6.5-7.5
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 25 kg/ha (seed), 80 kg/ha (fresh herb).
Planting: for seed and seed oil production, sow direct in spring. For fresh herb (cilantro) and herb oil production sow early spring and fall; will bolt in hot weather.
Field spacing: 50-60cm between rows x 11-13cm between plants (seed), 20-25cm between rows x 8-10cm (fresh herb).
Yield: seed 900-1,500kg/ha, fresh herb 10-12t/ha, oil 1-9kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: thrip
Diseases: asters yellow, erysiphe powdery mildew, puccinia rust, pseudamonas, and sclerotina.
Buyers want: less than 12% moisture.
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Sowing rate: 200g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots; do not transplant – root disturbance causes plants to bolt early.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: aphid, thrip, mite, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Dandelion
(Taraxacum officinale) |
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Market
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Products: (root, herb); (leaf)
Market size: 7,000 hectares (world); 500 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 1200-1900 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: most soils
Crop duration: 2 years (root), 1-4 years (fresh leaf)
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Sowing rate: 1-3kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring or late summer. Fresh leaf gathered as vegetable spring, summer and fall. Herb for drying harvested spring or summer. Roots dug late fall.
Field spacing: 45cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: dry root 1100-1700kg/ha (year 2).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: water-soluble extractive not less than 30%.
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Dill
(Anethum graveolens, A. sowa ) |
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Market
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Products: (seed, herb); (leaf); (leaf, seed);
Market size: 37,000 hectares (world), 4,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices same, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 400-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, moderately rich, loose soil, pH 5.5-6.5
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 9-12 kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in spring.
Field spacing: 25-50cm between rows; thin to 10cm within rows for fresh herb production or 2-3cm within rows for seed production.
Yield: seed 600-900kg/ha, fresh herb 2500-5000kg/ha, dried herb 1000kg/ha, oil 50-110kg/ha.
Pests: aphid, tarnished plant bug
Diseases: powdery mildew, leafspot, aster yellows.
Buyers want: good green colour (dried leaf).
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Sowing rate: 15-40g/1000pots.
Planting: do not transplant; sow direct in pots, 8-20 seeds per pot.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: aphid
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Echinacea
(Echinacea purpurea, E. angustifolia, E. pallida ) |
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Market
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Products: (root, herb, flower, seed); (herb);
Market size: 16,000 hectares (world), 4,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices down, acreage up; market for E. purpurea herb is weak.
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Culture |
Seed density: 160-500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained, pH 6-7.5
Crop duration: 3-4 years
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Sowing rate: 14-18 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: E. purpurea seeds do not require pretreatment. Can be started in plugs and transplanted to the field, which is the preferred method, or can be sown direct in the field. Sow E. purpurea 100-120 days before field planting; sow E. angustifolia and E. pallida 150 days before planting. E. angustifolia and E. pallida germination benefits from pretreatment; stratify at 5°C for 4-12 weeks with light. Pretreatment with Ethrel (1 millimolar for 2 weeks), or with bleach (1% for 10 min.) improves E. angustifolia germination.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 20-45cm within rows.
Yield: E. purpurea herb 6,500-11,000kg/ha (years 2-4); E. purpurea root 1000kg/ha (year 4); E. angustifolia root 1100kg/ha (year 4); no data for E. pallida root.
Pests: leafhopper
Diseases: aster yellows (spread by leafhoppers), sclerotinia stem and root rot, botrytis.
Buyers want: certificate of botanical identity required for E. angustifolia; echinacoside 1.4% (roots).
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Sowing rate: 10g/1000plants.
Planting: sow 14 weeks (E. purpurea) to 22 weeks (E. angustifolia, E. pallida) before sale. Stratify or pretreat E. angustifolia and E. pallida seed before sowing (see above).
Seeds to finished plugs: 8-12 weeks (after pretreatment).
Plugs to saleable plants: 6-10 weeks.
Pests: few problems, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Elecampane
(Inula helenium ) |
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Market
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Products: (root); (root);
Market size: 800 hectares (world), 25 ha (North America).
Prospects: prices same, volume same
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Culture |
Seed density: 600-800 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: moist, deep, well-drained
Crop duration: 2 years.
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Sowing rate: 400-600g/ha (direct); 5g/1000plants (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing not recommended. Start in plugs 8 weeks before spring or late summer field planting.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 45cm within rows.
Yield: 2500kg/ha (year 2).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: erysiphe powdery mildew (late summer), ramularia leafspot, puccinia rust.
Buyers want: not less than 1.8% volatile oil, not more than 6-8% ash, not less than 27% water-soluble extractive, not more than 2% foreign matter.
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Sowing rate: 5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs, seedflats or seed beds. Germination in 4-7 days.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 2-6 weeks.
Pests: spider mite, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Fennel
(Foeniculum vulgare) |
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Market
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Products: (seed); (leaf, bulb); (herb);
Market size: 70,000 hectares (world), 7,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 200-300 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, deep, moderately fertile, pH 7-8.
Crop duration: 2-3 years (florence fennel, 1 year)
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Sowing rate: 4-6kg/ha (direct), 30g/1000plants (indirect).
Planting: sow sweet fennel direct; bronze direct or indirect; florence indirect.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: seed 1000-1600kg/ha (years 2-3), fresh herb 8-10t/ha (year 1-3), dried herb 1.5-2.5t/ha (year 1-3), seed oil 40-75kg/ha.
Pests: aphid, lygus tarnished plant bug
Diseases: sclerotinia stemrot, rhizoctonia damping-off, erwinia soft rot.
Buyers want: not less than 2-4% volatile oil.
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Sowing rate: 30g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots or in plugs. Does not transplant well; best to sow direct.
Seeds to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3 weeks.
Pests: aphid
Diseases: damping-off.
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Fenugreek
(Trigonella foenum-graecum) |
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Market
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Products: (seeds, leaf, herb); (herb, sprouts); (seed)
Market size: 90,000 hectares (world), 7,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 100 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, warm soil
Crop duration: 1 year.
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Sowing rate: 25-35kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in spring. Broadcast or in close rows.
Field spacing: 20cm between rows x 10-20cm within rows.
Yield: seed 700-900kg/ha, dried forage 2-10t/ha.
Pests: no data
Diseases: no data.
Buyers want: swelling index not less than 6, foreign matter not more than 2-5%, ash not more than 5-6% (seed).
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Feverfew
(Tanacetum parthenium) |
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Market
|
Products: (herb);
Market size: 1,300 hectares (world), 160 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume down
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Culture |
Seed density: 7,500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained, dry soil
Crop duration: 1-2 years
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Sowing rate: 1-1.5 kg/ha (direct); 0.5g/1000plants.
Planting: plugs preferred over direct sowing because seeds very small. Sow plugs 8 weeks before spring planting date. Don't allow to go to seed to avoid winterkill. Frequent fertilization with low nitrogen fertilizer is beneficial. Long days trigger flowering. Short lived perennial; some growers treat as annual.
Field spacing: 20-90cm between rows x 10-20cm within rows.
Yield: 300-5000kg/ha (years 1-2).
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: minimum 0.4-0.8% parthenolide.
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Sowing rate: 0.5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow 14-16 weeks before sales in flats or plug trays.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6-8 weeks.
Pests: aphid, whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
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Scented Geranium
(Pelargonium spp. ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (leaf);
Market size: 4,000 hectares (world), 400 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 360-450 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, neutral to alkaline
Crop duration: 1 year temperate areas, 3-5 year in tropical areas.d o Planting: all commercially important varieties are propagated by cuttings. Plugs planted in spring after last frost date. FieldSpacing: 60-100cm between rows x 20-50cm within rows. Yield: fresh leaf 13-30t/ha, oil 13-17kg/ha (years 1-5). PestsDiseases: aphid, caterpillar / alternaria leaf spot.
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Seeds/ |
Planting: all commercially important varieties are propagated by cuttings. Plugs planted in spring after last frost date.
Field spacing: 60-100cm between rows x 20-50cm within rows.
Yield: fresh leaf 13-30t/ha, oil 13-17kg/ha (years 1-5).
Pests: aphid, caterpillar
Diseases: alternaria leaf spot.
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Sowing rate: 30-80g/1000 plants.
Planting: commercial propagation is by cutting only.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6-8 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, geranium and peach aphid, mite, mealybug, scale
Diseases: various leaf spots including xanthomonas, alternaria, botrytis.
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Gingko
(Ginkgo biloba ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (seed);
Market size: 5,000 hectares (world), 600 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 1 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: rich, well-drained, moist soil
Crop duration: 20-50+ years
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Sowing rate: 2-4kg/hectare.
Planting: seeds require stratification, 1-2 months warm, then 1-2 months cold, then sow in spring. Common nursery practice is to sow without stratification in outdoor seed beds in fall. Seedlings shaded for 2-3 years and fertilized with manure. Seedlings transplanted to permanent location when 7-8 years old. Trees kept short (2m) and spaced close (2-3m) in commercial plantations for medicinal leaf production; otherwise allowed to grow higher and spaced further for seed production. Slow growing. Leaves harvested in early fall as they begin to turn yellow; dried in sun. Fruits harvested late fall, seeds cleaned and roasted.
Field spacing: 3-5m apart (2-3m within rows for leaf production).
Yield: no data (leaf years 8-50, seed years 20-50).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: tolerates pollution.
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Sowing rate: 2-4kg/1000 plants.
Planting: stratify seed warm (1-2 months) followed by cold (1-2 months). Sow in deep plugs. Keep lightly shaded.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks to 1 year.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8 weeks (10cm pots), 2-5 years (larger plants).
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Ginseng
(Panax quinquefolius, P. ginseng; Eleutherococcus senticosus) |
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Market
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Products: (root)
Market size: Panax 70,000 hectares (world), 7,400 ha (North America)
Prospects: Panax prices down, volume up. Prospects for woodsgrown Panax much better than shadecloth grown.
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Culture |
Seed density: Panax 15; Eleutherococcus 100 seeds/gram
Exposure: Panax 70% shade; Eleutherococcus 30-50% shade
Soil: well-drained, sandy or clay loam, in raised beds, pH 5.5-6.0
Crop duration: Panax 3-4 years (shadecloth), 4-8 years (woodsgrown); Eleutherococcus 6-12 years
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Sowing rate: 40-100 kg/ha (shadecloth), 10-20 kg/ha (woodsgrown).
Planting: Panax seeds stratified one year. Sow stratified seeds in seedbeds and transplant seedlings to raised beds in years 1-2, or sow direct in raised beds. Mulch with straw. Remove shadecloth over winter. Eleutherococcus seeds need at least cycles of warm-cold stratification; best results obtained when sown in flats in fall and left out over winter under mulch.
Field spacing: Panax 15-20cm between rows x 15-20cm within rows, further apart in woodsgrown plantings; Eleutherococcus 60-100cm apart.
Yield: Panax (shadecloth) 3400kg/ha (years 3-4).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: Panax alternaria leaf blight, rhizoctonia wilt, phytophthora, powdery mildew; Eleutherococcus few problems.
Buyers want: ginsenosides not less than 1.5-2%, ash not more than 4-8%.
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Sowing rate: Panax 150g/1000 plants; Eleutherococcus 250g/1000plants.
Planting: sow stratified Panax seeds in deep plugs, 2-4 seeds per plug, or sow in seed flats. Provide shade, keep cool and well ventilated.
Seeds to finished plugs: Panax 6 months (after stratification).
Plugs to saleable plants: Panax 1 year.
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: Panax alternaria, rhizoctonia.
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Goldenseal
(Hydrastis canadensis) |
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Market
|
Products: (root);
Market size: 17,000 hectares (world), 7,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices down, volume up. Majority of market supplied by wildcrafted material, but wild stocks are becoming depleted and now listed on CITES.
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Culture |
Seed density: 50-55 seeds/gram
Exposure: 50-75% Shade
Soil: well-drained, deep, fertile soil, pH 5.5-6.5, in raised beds or on gentle slope.
Crop duration: 3-6 years
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Sowing rate: 10kg/ha (direct), 100g/1000 plants (indirect); rootlets 100,000/ha.
Planting: growers prefer rootlets over seeds because they are more reliable and quicker to harvestable size (3 years); however, seed quality has improved recently and cost of seeds is much less than rootlets. Seeds take 5-6 years to get harvestable roots. Seeds must not dry out; must be sown immediately after harvest in late summer to come up following spring. Avoid straw mulch and fertilize lightly.
Field spacing: 15-40cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: 900-2300kg/ha (year 3-6).
Pests: slugs
Diseases: alternaria, phytophthora, rhizoctonia, botrytis leafspot, fusarium.
Buyers want: min. alkaloids 3.5%.
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Sowing rate: seed 100g/1000plants, rootlets 300-1000/1000 plants.
Planting: for potted plant production, best to start with rootlets. Pot up rootlets 4 weeks before sale. Provide cool, shaded, and well-ventilated conditions; will not tolerate full sun and high humidity.
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: alternaria and other diseases common in potted plants in greenhouses.
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Lavender
(Lavandula angustifolia, L. x intermedia) |
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Market
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Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 9,000 hectares (world), 1,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 850-1300 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained, deep, not too rich, pH 6.5-7.5
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 3-6kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: lavandins (L. x intermedia; e.g. 'Provence' and 'Grosso'), best for commercial flower and oil production, are propagated vegetatively only. Only english types are available in seed form, but seed grown material may not be uniform enough for field production. Direct sowing not recommended; germination is too slow (15-30 days). Sow in seedflats 12-16 weeks before outdoor planting; transplant to plugs at 4-6 weeks, then transplant to field.
Field spacing: 60-120cm between rows x 25-120cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 500-1500kg/ha (years 2-5), oil 8-32kg/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: caterpillar, nematode
Diseases: phoma scab, septoria leaf spot, armillaria root rot.
Buyers want: 1.3% volatile oil or higher, good colour.
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Sowing rate: 5-10g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow 20-26 weeks before sale. Germination of english types (L. angustifolia) is frequently below 50%; scarification or freezing of seedflat can sometimes improve germination.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12-16 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8-10 weeks.
Pests: mealybug, whitefly, spider mite, scale
Diseases: few problems.
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Lemongrass
(Cymbopogon citratus, C. flexuosus) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (stem); (herb);
Market size: 50,000 hectares (world), 2,600 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: C. flexuosus 2000-2400 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, sandy loam, pH 5.5-6.5
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: C. flexuosus 5-10kg/ha (direct).
Planting: C. citratus grown from cuttings only. Sow C. flexuosus in spring. Heavy feeder. Oil quality of C. citratus highest at 18-24 months.
Field spacing: C. citratus 100cm between rows x 45cm within rows; broadcast C. flexuosus, or sow in rows 60-100cm apart.
Yield: C. citratus dry herb 4-6t/ha, oil 30-40kg/ha (years 1-5); C. flexuosus dry herb 10-15t/ha, 80kg/ha (years 1-5).
Pests: no data
Diseases: C. citratus himantia web blight, myriogenospora tangletop, helminthosperium eyespot, papularia.
Buyers want: high citral content.
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Sowing rate: 5g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow C. flexuosus in plugs 13-14 weeks before sale. C. citratus grown from cuttings only.
Seeds to finished plugs: 10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3-8 weeks.
Pests: spider mite, whitefly, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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Licorice
(Glycyrrhiza spp. ) |
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Market
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Products: (root);
Market size: 45,000 hectares (world), 480 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices down, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 400-600 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: deep, rich, moist, sandy, slightly alkaline, pH 7.3-7.8
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 3-4 kg/ha (direct), 5-10g/1000 plants (indirect).
Planting: soak seeds 2-3 hours in 30°C water or scarify before planting to weaken hard seed coat. Sow direct in spring or in deep plugs 12-16 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 70-90cm between rows x 45-90cm within rows.
Yield: G. glabra dry root 10-20t/ha (year 3-5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: uromyces rust, cercospora blight.
Buyers want: minimum 4% glycyrrhizinic acid, minimum 20% water soluble extractive.
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Sowing rate: 5-10g/1000plants.
Planting: soak seed in warm water (30°C) for 2-3 hours or scarify before sowing. Sow in flats or deep plugs 22-26 weeks before sale. Highly susceptible to damping-off; preventative application of damping-off control recommended.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12-16 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: damping-off.
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Lobelia
(Lobelia inflata ) |
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Market
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Products: (seed, herb);
Market size: 9,000 hectares (world), 1,700 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 30,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, rich soil
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 0.2-1kg/ha (direct), 0.1kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow in plugs or seedflats 12 weeks before field planting. Harvest herb when upper flowers are in bloom and lowest flowers have developed seed capsules when lobeline and lobelidine alkaloid content highest.
Field spacing: 30cm between rows x 15cm within rows.
Yield: dry herb 1100kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: wireworms
Diseases: cercospora, phyllosticta and septoria leaf spots.
Buyers want: no data.
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Sowing rate: 0.5g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow in plugs 14 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4-6 weeks.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
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Marjoram
(Origanum majorana) |
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Market
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Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 12,000 hectares (world), 800 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 3,500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, pH 6.5-7.5
Crop duration: 1 year (2-3 years in zone 9+)
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Sowing rate: 5-6kg/ha (direct), 0.2-0.3kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: requires warmth to do well; germinates best above 15°C daytime and 10°C nighttime. Sow direct in warmer zones; or sow indirect in plugs 12 weeks before field planting in cooler zones.
Field spacing: 30-40cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: 2.5-3t/ha (years 1-3).
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: botrytis gray mold, alternaria, puccinia rust, septoria.
Buyers want: no data.
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Sowing rate: 1g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or direct in pots 6-8 weeks before sale. Minimum 15°C days, 10°C nights.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 2-4 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite, thrip
Diseases: few problems.
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Chinese Milkvetch, Astragalus
(Astragalus membranaceus) |
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Market
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Products: (root);
Market size: 1,700 hectares (world), 560 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 130-160 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, deep, moist, alkaline
Crop duration: 4-5 years
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Sowing rate: 6-8 kg/ha (direct), 3-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: can be started in deep plugs, but suffers transplant shock easily. Probably better to sow direct in field, in early spring or fall. Scarification helps speed germination. Harvested in fall, lateral roots trimmed, dried partially and then sliced 0.5 cm thick, and then further dried.
Field spacing: 75-100cm between rows x 25cm within rows.
Yield: 7000kg/ha (year 4-5).
Pests: no data
Diseases: unidentified root rot when in wet conditions.
Buyers want: no data.
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Sowing rate: 75g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow in deep plugs 19-20 weeks before sale; transplant before plugs are root-bound. Highly susceptible to mites.
Seeds to finished plugs: 10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 9 weeks.
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: damping-off.
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Mint
(Mentha spp.) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf, herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 240,000 hectares (world), 16,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 17,000-20,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: rich, moist, well-drained, pH 6.5-7
Crop duration: 2-3 years
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Sowing rate: 1 kg/ha (direct), 0.1-0.2kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: commercial plantings propagated vegetatively; seed not suitable because of poor oil quality. Root cuttings planted in early spring or fall. Fields must be rotated every 2-3 years to prevent disease buildup.
Field spacing: 40-90cm between rows x 15-45cm within rows.
Yield: peppermint herb oil 35-125kg/ha, fresh herb 10-25t/ha, dried herb 1-3t/ha (years 2-3).
Pests: nematode, aphid
Diseases: puccinia rust, verticillum wilt, leaf spot, sphaceloma spot anthracnose.
Buyers want: peppermint minimum 1-1.2% volatile oil, not more than 10% leaves spotted with puccinia rust, not more than 5% stems, 2% foreign matter or 11% water.
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Sowing rate: 0.5-1g/1000 plants.
Planting: most cultivars grown from cuttings. Seed material not recommended for pot plant sales.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite, aphid, mealybug
Diseases: rust.
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Nettle
(Urtica dioica ) |
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Market
|
Products: (herb, root, leaf, seed);
Market size: 1,600 hectares (world), 240 ha (North America)
Prospects: Prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 6,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun or part shade
Soil: rich, moist, pH 6-7
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 5kg/ha (direct), 0.6kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow in plugs 12 weeks before field planting, or direct in spring.
Field spacing: 30cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: 1000-2000kg/ha (years 3-5).
Pests: no data
Diseases: no data.
Buyers want: maximum 10% stems, 2% other foreign matter, total ash 20%, acid-insoluble ash 4%.
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Sowing rate: 2g/1000 plants (indirect).
Planting: sow in plugs 18 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: spider mite, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Oregano
(Origanum spp. ) |
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Market
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Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 8,000 hectares (world), 2,400 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up Varieties: most oregano is wildcrafted in Europe. In North America, much of the oregano is Lippia graveolens, the mexican variety.
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Culture |
Seed density: 3800-4500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, sandy, dry, pH 6-8
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 2.5-3kg/ha (direct), 0.2-0.5kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: greek variety is best for commercial fresh and dry herb and oil production. Sow direct in spring when soil temperature is at least 15°C, or sow in plugs 6 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 30-40cm between rows x 7-15cm within rows.
Yield: dry herb 1000-3000kg/ha, fresh herb 10-20t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: unspecified fungal diseases can occur in wet weather.
Buyers want: strong scent, good green colour.
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Sowing rate: 0.5-1g/1000 plants.
Planting: most varieties cannot be grown from seeds; only greek variety is raised from seed commercially. Sow in plugs 12 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Parsley
(Petroselinum crispum) |
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Market
|
Products: (leaf); (leaf, root);
Market size: 250,000 hectares (world), 25,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 650-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: tolerates most soils, but rich, well-drained, moist, pH 6-7 is best
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 3-7 kg/ha (direct), 0.5-1.5kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field early spring or fall in warmer zones. Two or three cuts are possible.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 10-20cm within rows.
Yield: fresh herb 5-10t/ha, dry herb 1-2t/ha (year 1).
Pests: carrot root fly
Diseases: septoria and alternaria leaf spot.
Buyers want: good green colour (dry and fresh herb).
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Sowing rate: 2-4g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or direct in pots. Sow 4-5 seeds per plug or 12 per pot.
Seeds to saleable plants: 12 weeks.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite, aphid
Diseases: few problems.
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Chile Pepper
(Capsicum annuum, C. spp.) |
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Market
|
Products: (fruit); (fruit);
Market size: 100,000 hectares (world), 10,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 80-250 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained, loam, pH 6.5-7.5
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 10kg/ha (direct), 0.5-1kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: should not follow in soils where pepper, eggplant, tobacco, potato, tomato and other Solanaceae were grown previously. Needs 21-30°C to do well. Minimum 16°C soil temperature required for germination In cooler temperate zones. Sow in flats or plugs 8-12 weeks before spring field planting. In warmer zones (e.g. southern U.S.), can be sown direct in field. Cultivation similar to bell peppers, except longer, warmer season required (65-80 days). Easily killed by frost. Excess nitrogen feeding will reduce fruit production. Irrigation necessary in drier areas; can improve yields 6-fold.
Field spacing: 90-130cm between rows x 30-60cm within rows.
Yield: fresh fruit 8-15t/ha, dry fruit 2t/ha (year 1).
Pests: aphid, ground beetle, pepper weevil
Diseases: xanthomonas bacterial spot, anthracnose, and many others.
Buyers want: varies greatly depending on the market.
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Sowing rate: 10-25g/1000plants.
Planting: sow 10-12 weeks before sale. Sow in flats or plugs. Mostly sold in 4- or 6-packs in spring like bedding annuals, or in pots.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite, aphid
Diseases: few problems.
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Rosemary
(Rosmarinus officinalis ) |
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Market
|
Products: (leaf); (leaf); (herb);
Market size: Most commercial product is from wildcrafted sources. Cultivated acreage is 200 hectares (North America); world acreage unknown
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained; pH 6.0-7.5
Crop duration: 10-20 years
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Sowing rate: 1.5-3 kg/ha (direct), 0.2-0.6kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing not recommended because seeds are slow to germinate and seedlings are slow to establish. Sow in seedflats 20 weeks before field spring planting. Germination can be enhanced by exposing seedflat to 24-27°C for 1 week and then lower to 18°C for germination. Where rosemary is not hardy growers dig up plants and overwinter in cool greenhouses. Named cultivars must be grown from cuttings; seed only available for standard species.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 25-50cm within rows.
Yield: fresh herb 2000kg/ha (years 2-20).
Pests: no data
Diseases: root rot.
Buyers want: dried leaf minimum volatile oil 1.2%, maximum foreign matter 10%, maximum woody stems 2%, maximum ash 7%.
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Sowing rate: 10-15g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow in seedflats 22 weeks before sale in 10cm pots.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, scale, mealybug
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Sage
(Salvia officinalis ) |
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Market
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Products: (herb); (herb, sprouts); (herb);
Market size: 160,000 hectares (world), 2,400 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 125 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, rich, light or heavy, pH 6-6.5
Crop duration: 4-5 years
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Sowing rate: 5-15 kg/ha (direct), 0.5-2kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring or sow in plugs 8 weeks before field planting. Trim plants to 15 cm in early spring to encourage new shoots. 'Die-back' occurs in heavy soils that do not drain well.
Field spacing: 50-75cm between rows x 30-50cm within rows.
Yield: dresh herb 10-20t/ha, dry herb 2.5-5t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: few problems with pests
Diseases: verticillium wilt, oidium powdery mildew.
Buyers want: minimum volatile oil 1.5%, maximum ash 8-12%, maximum foreign matter 3%.
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Sowing rate: 20-30g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or flats 12-14 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4-6 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite, mealybug
Diseases: damping-off, powdery mildew.
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St. Johnswort
(Hypericum perfoliatum ) |
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Market
|
Products: (herb); (herb);
Market size: 2,400 hectares (world), 800 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices down, volume down
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Culture |
Seed density: 7,000-10,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, dry, pH 6-7
Crop duration: 2-3 years
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Sowing rate: 1-1.5kg/ha (direct), 0.1-0.5kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing has been tried with success, but seedlings are slow to establish and weed control is a problem. Sow direct in field in spring. Or, sow indirect in plugs 8 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 20-90cm between rows x 20-30cm within rows.
Yield: 1000-1200kg/ha (years 2-3).
Pests: chrysolina beetle, nematode
Diseases: colletotrichum anthracnose. Chrysolina beetle has become a serious problem is some areas after several years of cultivation. Serious anthracnose damage has been reported in areas where St. Johnswort has been cultivated for several years. There is evidence of a correlation between chrysolina infestation and anthracnose.
Buyers want: minimum 0.3% hypericin, maximum 5-8% ash, 2% foreign matter, 10% loss on drying.
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Sowing rate: 2g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs 10-12 weeks prior to sale. anthracnose disease (reddening of foliage and dieback) is a serious problem in plug production; avoid overwatering and watering late in day. Anthracnose spreads by unknown vector; may be insect or splashing water.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 2-4 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: colletotrichum anthracnose.
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Savory
(Satureja hortensis, S. montana) |
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Market
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Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 800 hectares (world), 320 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 1700-2600 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained
Crop duration: S. hortensis 1 year; S. montana 3-6 years
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Sowing rate: S. hortensis 6-20 kg/ha (direct); S. montana 6 kg/ha (direct), 0.2-1kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in spring. S. montana best sown in plugs 8 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: S. hortensis 15-90cm between rows x 15-20cm within rows; S. montana 30-60cm x 17-20cm.
Yield: S. hortensis dry herb 2500-5000kg/ha, oil 30kg/ha (year 1); S. montana dry herb 1-3t/ha (years 2-6).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: No data.
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Sowing rate: 2-5g/1000plants.
Planting: S. hortensis can be sown direct in pots, 6 weeks before sale. Sow S. montana in plugs 12 weeks before sale.
Seeds to saleable plants: S. hortensis 6 weeks.
Seeds to finished plugs: S. montana 4-6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: S. montana 8 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite, aphid
Diseases: few problems.
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Scullcap
(Scutellaria lateriflora, S. baicalensis) |
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Market
|
Products: (herb – S. lateriflora, root – S. baicalensis);
Market size: 5,000 hectares (world), 400 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: S. lateriflora 3400; S. baicalensis 550 seeds/gram
Exposure: sun or partial shade.
Soil: fertile, damp, light, well-drained, pH 6-7
Crop duration: 3-4 years
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Sowing rate: S. lateriflora 1-1.5 kg/ha (direct), 0.1-1kg/ha (indirect); S. baicalensis 8-12 kg/ha (direct), 0.3-2kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: S. lateriflora best sown in plugs 8 weeks before field planting; herb harvested in 3-4 years. S. baicalensis best sown direct in field in spring; root harvested in 3-4 years in spring or autumn.
Field spacing: 15-60cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: no data (years 3-4).
Pests: no data
Diseases: no data.
Buyers want: presence of scutellarin in S. lateriflora, baicalin in S. baicalensis.
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Sowing rate: 5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs 15 weeks before sale. Very sensitive to overwatering.
Seeds to finished plugs: 10-12 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4 weeks.
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
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Sorrel
(Rumex acetosa, R. acetosella, R. scutatus ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (leaf);
Market size: 400 hectares (world), 140 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: S. acetosa 1000; S. acetosella 2,200, S. scutatus 700 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun or partial shade
Soil: cool, moist, acidic
Crop duration: 2-3 years
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Sowing rate: S. acetosa 3kg/ha (direct), 0.5kg/ha; S. acetosella 2kg/ha (direct), 0.3kg/ha (indirect); S. scutatus 5kg/ha (direct), 1kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in spring. Or, sow in plugs 6-8 weeks before field planting. Flowering stocks should be removed in S. acetosa, or use non-flowering variety 'Profusion'.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 30cm within rows.
Yield: no data (years 1-3).
Pests: unidentified insect puncturing leaves in R. acetosa, slugs
Diseases: leaf spot, puccinia rust, aster yellows.
Buyers want: no data.
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Sowing rate: S. acetosa 5g/1000plants; S. acetosella 2g/1000plants; S. scutatus 7g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots 10 weeks before sale. Or, sow in plugs 10-12 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6-8weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 2-4 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, aphid, slugs
Diseases: few problems.
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Tarragon
(Artemisia dracunculus ) |
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Market
|
Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 3,000 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 6200 (russian variety is not recommended) seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: deep, well-drained, fertile, pH 6.5
Crop duration: 2-4 years
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Sowing rate: 0.1kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: seeds not recommended. Seed-grown russian variety does not have flavour. Best grown from vegetatatively-propagated stock.
Field spacing: 45-60cm between rows x 30cm within rows.
Yield: fresh herb 7-18t/ha (years 1-4), dry herb 1500-2600kg/ha (years 1-4).
Pests: puccinia rust
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: good green colour, good anise aroma.
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Sowing rate: 1g/1000plants.
Planting: seed not recommended; start with plugs.
Plugs to saleable plants: 7 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
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Milk Thistle
(Silybum marianum ) |
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Market
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Products: (seed, herb)
Market size: 5,000 hectares (world), 500 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 42 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 4-5 kg/ha (direct).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring when soil temperature remains above 10 C.
Field spacing: 70-80cm between rows x 20-30cm within rows.
Yield: 1.5t/ha (year 1).
Pests: tanymecus larva
Diseases: erysiphe powdery mildew, botrytis grey mold.
Buyers want: seed minimum 1% silymarin, maximum 2% foreign matter, maximum loss on drying 8%, maximum ash 8%.
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Alfalfa
(Medicago sativa ) |
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Market
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Products: (seeds, leaf, herb); (herb, sprouts)
Market size: (excluding acreage planted for fodder): 12,000 hectares (world); 5,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices and acreage up
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Culture |
Seed density: 350 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained; pH 6.0-7.5
Crop duration: 1-4 years
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(herb) |
Sowing rate: 9-13kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring, broadcast or sow in rows, 15-30cm apart. Two or more cuts at bud stage possible; last cut 6 weeks before killing frost. Heavy potash and phosphorus feeder.
Yield: dry herb 8-10,000kg/ha (years 1-4).
Pests: weevil, leafminer, leafhopper, snout beetle
Diseases: verticillium wilt, leafspot, phytophthora root rot.
Buyers want: organic product.
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(sprouts) |
Planting: soak seeds overnight; drain, keep moist. Ready in 3-5 days.
Yield: 4kg(sprouts)/kg(seeds).
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Arnica
(A. montana, A. chamissonis) |
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Market
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Products: (flower, root); (flower);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 160 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume down
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Culture |
Seed density: 700-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, humus-rich, pH 7 (A. chamissonis), pH 4.5-6 (A. montana)
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 1-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing not recommended. Sow in seedflats or plugs. Sow A. montana 16-20 weeks before transplanting to field; sow A. chamissonis 12 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 15-60cm between rows x 15-20cm within rows.
Harvest: flower (years 2-5), root (year 3 or 4).
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: chlorosis (yellow leaves) in A. montana caused by alkaline soil.
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Sowing rate: 8-10g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in seedflats or plugs 20 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8 weeks.
Pests: few problems, whitefly occasionally
Diseases: few problems.
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Lemon Balm
(Melissa officinalis) |
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Market
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Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 75 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 2000 seeds/gram
Exposure: sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained clay or sandy loam, pH 6 to 7.5
Crop duration: 2-4 years
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Sowing rate: 7-9kg/ha (direct), 250-400g/ha (indirect, in plugs).
Planting: sowing in plugs in greenhouse in early spring till mid-summer is most common method; sow 6-8 weeks before transplanting to field. Direct sowing is not as common because weed control is more difficult; sow in early spring or late fall (to come up next spring).
Field spacing: 50-75cm between rows x 18-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry herb 5000kg/ha, fresh herb 10-25t/ha (years 1-3).
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: erisyphe powdery mildew, septoria blight, puccinia rust.
Buyers want: dry carefully to conserve oil in dried herb.
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Sowing rate: 3-5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in flats or plugs 11-14 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spidermite, thrip
Diseases: mildew.
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Basil
(Ocimum basilicum, and others ) |
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Market
|
Products: (leaf, herb); (herb); (oil);
Market size: 10,000 hectares (world), 1,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 500-1000 (O. gratissimum 2600, O. kilamandscharicum 2800, O. sanctum 1500-2500) seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: rich, well-drained
Crop duration: 1 year (O. basilicum), 1-3 years (others)
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Sowing rate: 20kg/ha (direct); 3-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in spring when nighttime temperatures exceed 10°C; or sow in flats or plugs 8 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 15-25cm within rows.
Yield: fresh herb 15,000kg/ha, dry herb 1,500-2,000kg/ha, oil 30kg/ha (year 1)
Pests: aphids, thrips
Diseases: O. basilicum varieties are highly susceptible to fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum) disease. Disease persists in soil for several years. Commercial field plantings should be sown with fusarium-tolerant Nufar F1. Hydroponic operations may choose fusarium-free varieties if equipment and facilities are free of fusarium (spreads by contaminated seeds and equipment). Other basil species (e.g. O. americanum and O. gratissimum) are fusarium-tolerant.
Buyers want: not less than 0.4% essential oil in dried product.
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Sowing rate: 3-4g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in final pots, or in plugs and later transplant to final pots. Nighttime temperature must not go below 10°C.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, thrips, aphids
Diseases: fusarium (see above).
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Bay Laurel
(Laurus nobilis ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (leaf);
Market size: 2,000 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 1 seeds/gram
Exposure: sheltered position in full or half sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, moist
Crop duration: 20-50 years
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Sowing rate: 30-60kg/ha
Planting: sow stratified seeds in beds or flats.
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: leaves dried flat for visual appearance.
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Sowing rate: 5kg/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or flats in March or April.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks (after stratification).
Plugs to saleable plants: 10 weeks to a year.
Pests: whitefly, scale, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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Borage
(Borago officinalis ) |
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Market
|
Products: (seed, herb, flower, root); (herb, flower, root), (seed);
Market size: 5,000 hectares (world); 2,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, acreage up
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Culture |
Seed density: 50 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: best in well-drained, fertile, moist soil, but tolerates most soils, pH 5-8
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 5-17 kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in late spring in rows 45-90cm apart, 30-45cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 300kg/ha; fresh flower 1,000-5,000kg/ha; seed 90-450kg/ha.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: 24% gamma lineolenic acid content in seed oil.
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Sowing rate: 50-80g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots or plugs.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
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Burdock
(Arctium lappa) |
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Market
|
Products: (root, leaf); (root);
Market size: 3,000 hectares (world), 170 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 60-110 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or part sun
Soil: deep, loose, humus-rich, pH 6-8
Crop duration: 1-2 years
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Sowing rate: 4 kg/ha (direct), 1.5kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring. Or, sow in beds or plugs and transplant to field in spring. For use as fresh vegetable, dig first year roots when young and tender at 3-5 months. For dry root production, dig in fall of second year.
Field spacing: 45-90cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry root 2,000kg/ha (years 2 or 3).
Pests: few problems, grasshopper
Diseases: few problems.
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Sowing rate: 20g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs 9-10 weeks before sale.
Seeds to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Calendula
(C. officinalis) |
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Market
|
Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 880 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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|
Culture |
Seed density: 150 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained; can tolerate poor soil with low nitrogen.
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 3-9kg/ha (direct), 1kg/ha (indirect in plugs).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring or autumn; or sow in plugs 4-6 weeks before field planting. Seeds need light to germinate; cover seeds lightly or press in soil only.
Field spacing: 20-70cm between rows x 10-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 1-2,000kg/ha, fresh flower 6-9,000kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: blister-beetle, cabbage-looper, caterpillar, leafhopper
Diseases: leaf spot, aster-yellows.
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Sowing rate: 15g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or direct in pots 10-12 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 4-6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, aphid, thrip, mealybug
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Caraway
(Carum carvi) |
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Market
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Products: (seed); (seed)
Market size: 19,000 hectares (world), 2,500 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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|
Culture |
Seed density: 350-400 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, pH 6-7.8.
Crop duration: 1-2 years (depending on variety)
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Sowing rate: 8-11 kg/ha.
Planting: sow standard biennial type direct in field late June or early July; harvest following year in August. Sow annual type in May (suited for warmer regions with 5-6 frost-free months). Sometimes sown with annual cover crops such as coriander, dill, mustard the first year.
Field spacing: 10-50cm between rows x 4-15cm within rows.
Yield: seed 600-3,000kg/ha, oil 4.5-7kg/ha (year 1 or 2, depending on variety).
Pests: leafhopper
Diseases: aster yellows.
Buyers want: seed minimum 3% oil, maximum 12% moisture.
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Catnip
(Nepeta cataria ) |
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Market
|
Products: (herb, leaf);
Market size: 2,400 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 1500-1600 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or partial sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, sandy, pH 6.5
Crop duration: 2-5 years
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Sowing rate: 12 kg/ha (direct), 1kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring or late fall. Or, sow in plugs 8-10 weeks before field planting. Seed needs light to germinate; sow shallow 2-4mm deep.
Field spacing: 45-90cm between rows x 30-40cm within rows.
Harvest: leaf, herb (years 2-5).
Yield: dry herb 3-6t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
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|
|
Sowing rate: 3g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or seedflats 12-15 weeks before sale. Sow 2-4mm deep.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8-10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3-5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
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Chamomile
(Matricaria recutita, Chamaemelum nobile ) |
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Market
|
Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 40,000 hectares (world), 4,800 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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|
Culture |
Seed density: 10,000-18,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained, moist to dry
Crop duration: 1 year (M. recutita), 2-3 years (C. nobile)
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Sowing rate: 3-4 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect)
Planting: german (M. recutita) is sown direct in field in spring or fall. Fall sowings germinate following spring. Roman (C. nobile) is sown direct or indirect in plugs which are later planted in field. Surface sow only (needs light to germinate). Hand harvesting flowers problematic in areas where labour cost is high; mechanical harvesting still unproven.
Field spacing: 10-50cm between rows x 10-25cm within rows, or broadcast sown.
Yield: dry flower 350-500kg/ha (M. recutita; year 1), 600-1000 kg/ha (C. nobile; years 1-3).
Pests: cnephasia moth
Diseases: aster yellows.
Buyers want: 0.4% or more volatile oil.
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Sowing rate: 1g/1000plants.
Planting: german (M. recutita) not normally sold in pots; roman (C. nobile) and its varieties are sold in pots or plugs. Seeds need light to germinate; surface sow only.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4-6 weeks.
Pests: aphid, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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Chives
(Allium schoenoprasum, A. tuberosum ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf, flower); (leaf, flower);
Market size: 24,000 hectares (world), 3,200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 750 (A. schoenoprasum), 200-300 (A. tuberosum) seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, humus-rich
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 2-3 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring, or sow indirect in plugs 12-16 weeks before field planting. Field must be free of quackgrass otherwise harvests will be contaminated.
Field spacing: 30cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: fresh leaf 10-20t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: aphid
Diseases: puccinia rust, downy mildew.
Buyers want: good green colour (dry leaf).
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Sowing rate: 5-20g/1000plants (A. schoenoprasum), 50g/1000plants (A. tuberosum)
Planting: sow 10-15 seeds per plug or pot, or sow same amount direct in pots.
Seeds to saleable plants: 24-30 weeks.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12-16 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 11 weeks.
Pests: aphid, thrip
Diseases: few problems.
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Comfrey
(Symphytum officinale, S. x uplandicum) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf, root); (root, herb);
Market size: 1,700 hectares (world), 240 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 90-100 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or part sun
Soil: moist, wet or dry
Crop duration: 2-5 years
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Sowing rate: 600-900g/ha (indirect).
Planting: although seed can be sown direct, the high cost of seed dictates indirect sowing in plugs or seedbed and transplanting to field. Root cuttings (12,000/ha) of named cultivars (e.g. Bocking No. 14) recommended over seed.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 90cm within rows.
Yield: dry leaf 12t/ha (years 2-5), dry root 1,800kg/ha (year 3, 4 or 5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: comfrey rust.
Buyers want: low pyrrolizidine alkaloid content, particularly echimidine; leaf should be cut early to avoid alkaloid buildup.
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Sowing rate: 50-70g/1000plants.
Planting: sow S. officinale in plugs or seedflats 12-14 weeks before sale. S. x uplandicum and ornamental varieties are propagated by division or root cutting.
Seeds to saleable plants: 12 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, aphid
Diseases: comfrey rust.
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Coriander, Cilantro
(Coriandrum sativum) |
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Market
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Products: (seed); (herb); (seed, herb);
Market size: 600,000 hectares (world), 5,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 110-150 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun (seed), full or half sun (fresh herb)
Soil: deep, fertile, light or heavy, well-drained, pH 6.5-7.5
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 25 kg/ha (seed), 80 kg/ha (fresh herb).
Planting: for seed and seed oil production, sow direct in spring. For fresh herb (cilantro) and herb oil production sow early spring and fall; will bolt in hot weather.
Field spacing: 50-60cm between rows x 11-13cm between plants (seed), 20-25cm between rows x 8-10cm (fresh herb).
Yield: seed 900-1,500kg/ha, fresh herb 10-12t/ha, oil 1-9kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: thrip
Diseases: asters yellow, erysiphe powdery mildew, puccinia rust, pseudamonas, and sclerotina.
Buyers want: less than 12% moisture.
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Sowing rate: 200g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots; do not transplant – root disturbance causes plants to bolt early.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: aphid, thrip, mite, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Dandelion
(Taraxacum officinale) |
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Market
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Products: (root, herb); (leaf)
Market size: 7,000 hectares (world); 500 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 1200-1900 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: most soils
Crop duration: 2 years (root), 1-4 years (fresh leaf)
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Sowing rate: 1-3kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring or late summer. Fresh leaf gathered as vegetable spring, summer and fall. Herb for drying harvested spring or summer. Roots dug late fall.
Field spacing: 45cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: dry root 1100-1700kg/ha (year 2).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: water-soluble extractive not less than 30%.
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Dill
(Anethum graveolens, A. sowa ) |
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Market
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Products: (seed, herb); (leaf); (leaf, seed);
Market size: 37,000 hectares (world), 4,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices same, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 400-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, moderately rich, loose soil, pH 5.5-6.5
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 9-12 kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in spring.
Field spacing: 25-50cm between rows; thin to 10cm within rows for fresh herb production or 2-3cm within rows for seed production.
Yield: seed 600-900kg/ha, fresh herb 2500-5000kg/ha, dried herb 1000kg/ha, oil 50-110kg/ha.
Pests: aphid, tarnished plant bug
Diseases: powdery mildew, leafspot, aster yellows.
Buyers want: good green colour (dried leaf).
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Sowing rate: 15-40g/1000pots.
Planting: do not transplant; sow direct in pots, 8-20 seeds per pot.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: aphid
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Echinacea
(Echinacea purpurea, E. angustifolia, E. pallida ) |
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Market
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Products: (root, herb, flower, seed); (herb);
Market size: 16,000 hectares (world), 4,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices down, acreage up; market for E. purpurea herb is weak.
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Culture |
Seed density: 160-500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained, pH 6-7.5
Crop duration: 3-4 years
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Sowing rate: 14-18 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: E. purpurea seeds do not require pretreatment. Can be started in plugs and transplanted to the field, which is the preferred method, or can be sown direct in the field. Sow E. purpurea 100-120 days before field planting; sow E. angustifolia and E. pallida 150 days before planting. E. angustifolia and E. pallida germination benefits from pretreatment; stratify at 5°C for 4-12 weeks with light. Pretreatment with Ethrel (1 millimolar for 2 weeks), or with bleach (1% for 10 min.) improves E. angustifolia germination.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 20-45cm within rows.
Yield: E. purpurea herb 6,500-11,000kg/ha (years 2-4); E. purpurea root 1000kg/ha (year 4); E. angustifolia root 1100kg/ha (year 4); no data for E. pallida root.
Pests: leafhopper
Diseases: aster yellows (spread by leafhoppers), sclerotinia stem and root rot, botrytis.
Buyers want: certificate of botanical identity required for E. angustifolia; echinacoside 1.4% (roots).
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Sowing rate: 10g/1000plants.
Planting: sow 14 weeks (E. purpurea) to 22 weeks (E. angustifolia, E. pallida) before sale. Stratify or pretreat E. angustifolia and E. pallida seed before sowing (see above).
Seeds to finished plugs: 8-12 weeks (after pretreatment).
Plugs to saleable plants: 6-10 weeks.
Pests: few problems, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Elecampane
(Inula helenium ) |
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Market
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Products: (root); (root);
Market size: 800 hectares (world), 25 ha (North America).
Prospects: prices same, volume same
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Culture |
Seed density: 600-800 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: moist, deep, well-drained
Crop duration: 2 years.
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Sowing rate: 400-600g/ha (direct); 5g/1000plants (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing not recommended. Start in plugs 8 weeks before spring or late summer field planting.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 45cm within rows.
Yield: 2500kg/ha (year 2).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: erysiphe powdery mildew (late summer), ramularia leafspot, puccinia rust.
Buyers want: not less than 1.8% volatile oil, not more than 6-8% ash, not less than 27% water-soluble extractive, not more than 2% foreign matter.
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Sowing rate: 5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs, seedflats or seed beds. Germination in 4-7 days.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 2-6 weeks.
Pests: spider mite, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Fennel
(Foeniculum vulgare) |
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Market
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Products: (seed); (leaf, bulb); (herb);
Market size: 70,000 hectares (world), 7,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 200-300 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, deep, moderately fertile, pH 7-8.
Crop duration: 2-3 years (florence fennel, 1 year)
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Sowing rate: 4-6kg/ha (direct), 30g/1000plants (indirect).
Planting: sow sweet fennel direct; bronze direct or indirect; florence indirect.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: seed 1000-1600kg/ha (years 2-3), fresh herb 8-10t/ha (year 1-3), dried herb 1.5-2.5t/ha (year 1-3), seed oil 40-75kg/ha.
Pests: aphid, lygus tarnished plant bug
Diseases: sclerotinia stemrot, rhizoctonia damping-off, erwinia soft rot.
Buyers want: not less than 2-4% volatile oil.
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Sowing rate: 30g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots or in plugs. Does not transplant well; best to sow direct.
Seeds to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3 weeks.
Pests: aphid
Diseases: damping-off.
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Fenugreek
(Trigonella foenum-graecum) |
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Market
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Products: (seeds, leaf, herb); (herb, sprouts); (seed)
Market size: 90,000 hectares (world), 7,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 100 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, warm soil
Crop duration: 1 year.
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Sowing rate: 25-35kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in spring. Broadcast or in close rows.
Field spacing: 20cm between rows x 10-20cm within rows.
Yield: seed 700-900kg/ha, dried forage 2-10t/ha.
Pests: no data
Diseases: no data.
Buyers want: swelling index not less than 6, foreign matter not more than 2-5%, ash not more than 5-6% (seed).
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Feverfew
(Tanacetum parthenium) |
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Market
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Products: (herb);
Market size: 1,300 hectares (world), 160 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume down
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Culture |
Seed density: 7,500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained, dry soil
Crop duration: 1-2 years
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Sowing rate: 1-1.5 kg/ha (direct); 0.5g/1000plants.
Planting: plugs preferred over direct sowing because seeds very small. Sow plugs 8 weeks before spring planting date. Don't allow to go to seed to avoid winterkill. Frequent fertilization with low nitrogen fertilizer is beneficial. Long days trigger flowering. Short lived perennial; some growers treat as annual.
Field spacing: 20-90cm between rows x 10-20cm within rows.
Yield: 300-5000kg/ha (years 1-2).
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: minimum 0.4-0.8% parthenolide.
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Sowing rate: 0.5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow 14-16 weeks before sales in flats or plug trays.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6-8 weeks.
Pests: aphid, whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
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Scented Geranium
(Pelargonium spp. ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (leaf);
Market size: 4,000 hectares (world), 400 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 360-450 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, neutral to alkaline
Crop duration: 1 year temperate areas, 3-5 year in tropical areas.d o Planting: all commercially important varieties are propagated by cuttings. Plugs planted in spring after last frost date. FieldSpacing: 60-100cm between rows x 20-50cm within rows. Yield: fresh leaf 13-30t/ha, oil 13-17kg/ha (years 1-5). PestsDiseases: aphid, caterpillar / alternaria leaf spot.
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Seeds/ |
Planting: all commercially important varieties are propagated by cuttings. Plugs planted in spring after last frost date.
Field spacing: 60-100cm between rows x 20-50cm within rows.
Yield: fresh leaf 13-30t/ha, oil 13-17kg/ha (years 1-5).
Pests: aphid, caterpillar
Diseases: alternaria leaf spot.
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Sowing rate: 30-80g/1000 plants.
Planting: commercial propagation is by cutting only.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6-8 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, geranium and peach aphid, mite, mealybug, scale
Diseases: various leaf spots including xanthomonas, alternaria, botrytis.
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Gingko
(Ginkgo biloba ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (seed);
Market size: 5,000 hectares (world), 600 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 1 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: rich, well-drained, moist soil
Crop duration: 20-50+ years
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Sowing rate: 2-4kg/hectare.
Planting: seeds require stratification, 1-2 months warm, then 1-2 months cold, then sow in spring. Common nursery practice is to sow without stratification in outdoor seed beds in fall. Seedlings shaded for 2-3 years and fertilized with manure. Seedlings transplanted to permanent location when 7-8 years old. Trees kept short (2m) and spaced close (2-3m) in commercial plantations for medicinal leaf production; otherwise allowed to grow higher and spaced further for seed production. Slow growing. Leaves harvested in early fall as they begin to turn yellow; dried in sun. Fruits harvested late fall, seeds cleaned and roasted.
Field spacing: 3-5m apart (2-3m within rows for leaf production).
Yield: no data (leaf years 8-50, seed years 20-50).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: tolerates pollution.
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Sowing rate: 2-4kg/1000 plants.
Planting: stratify seed warm (1-2 months) followed by cold (1-2 months). Sow in deep plugs. Keep lightly shaded.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks to 1 year.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8 weeks (10cm pots), 2-5 years (larger plants).
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Ginseng
(Panax quinquefolius, P. ginseng; Eleutherococcus senticosus) |
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Market
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Products: (root)
Market size: Panax 70,000 hectares (world), 7,400 ha (North America)
Prospects: Panax prices down, volume up. Prospects for woodsgrown Panax much better than shadecloth grown.
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Culture |
Seed density: Panax 15; Eleutherococcus 100 seeds/gram
Exposure: Panax 70% shade; Eleutherococcus 30-50% shade
Soil: well-drained, sandy or clay loam, in raised beds, pH 5.5-6.0
Crop duration: Panax 3-4 years (shadecloth), 4-8 years (woodsgrown); Eleutherococcus 6-12 years
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Sowing rate: 40-100 kg/ha (shadecloth), 10-20 kg/ha (woodsgrown).
Planting: Panax seeds stratified one year. Sow stratified seeds in seedbeds and transplant seedlings to raised beds in years 1-2, or sow direct in raised beds. Mulch with straw. Remove shadecloth over winter. Eleutherococcus seeds need at least cycles of warm-cold stratification; best results obtained when sown in flats in fall and left out over winter under mulch.
Field spacing: Panax 15-20cm between rows x 15-20cm within rows, further apart in woodsgrown plantings; Eleutherococcus 60-100cm apart.
Yield: Panax (shadecloth) 3400kg/ha (years 3-4).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: Panax alternaria leaf blight, rhizoctonia wilt, phytophthora, powdery mildew; Eleutherococcus few problems.
Buyers want: ginsenosides not less than 1.5-2%, ash not more than 4-8%.
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Sowing rate: Panax 150g/1000 plants; Eleutherococcus 250g/1000plants.
Planting: sow stratified Panax seeds in deep plugs, 2-4 seeds per plug, or sow in seed flats. Provide shade, keep cool and well ventilated.
Seeds to finished plugs: Panax 6 months (after stratification).
Plugs to saleable plants: Panax 1 year.
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: Panax alternaria, rhizoctonia.
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Goldenseal
(Hydrastis canadensis) |
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Market
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Products: (root);
Market size: 17,000 hectares (world), 7,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices down, volume up. Majority of market supplied by wildcrafted material, but wild stocks are becoming depleted and now listed on CITES.
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Culture |
Seed density: 50-55 seeds/gram
Exposure: 50-75% Shade
Soil: well-drained, deep, fertile soil, pH 5.5-6.5, in raised beds or on gentle slope.
Crop duration: 3-6 years
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Sowing rate: 10kg/ha (direct), 100g/1000 plants (indirect); rootlets 100,000/ha.
Planting: growers prefer rootlets over seeds because they are more reliable and quicker to harvestable size (3 years); however, seed quality has improved recently and cost of seeds is much less than rootlets. Seeds take 5-6 years to get harvestable roots. Seeds must not dry out; must be sown immediately after harvest in late summer to come up following spring. Avoid straw mulch and fertilize lightly.
Field spacing: 15-40cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: 900-2300kg/ha (year 3-6).
Pests: slugs
Diseases: alternaria, phytophthora, rhizoctonia, botrytis leafspot, fusarium.
Buyers want: min. alkaloids 3.5%.
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Sowing rate: seed 100g/1000plants, rootlets 300-1000/1000 plants.
Planting: for potted plant production, best to start with rootlets. Pot up rootlets 4 weeks before sale. Provide cool, shaded, and well-ventilated conditions; will not tolerate full sun and high humidity.
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: alternaria and other diseases common in potted plants in greenhouses.
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Lavender
(Lavandula angustifolia, L. x intermedia) |
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Market
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Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 9,000 hectares (world), 1,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 850-1300 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained, deep, not too rich, pH 6.5-7.5
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 3-6kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: lavandins (L. x intermedia; e.g. 'Provence' and 'Grosso'), best for commercial flower and oil production, are propagated vegetatively only. Only english types are available in seed form, but seed grown material may not be uniform enough for field production. Direct sowing not recommended; germination is too slow (15-30 days). Sow in seedflats 12-16 weeks before outdoor planting; transplant to plugs at 4-6 weeks, then transplant to field.
Field spacing: 60-120cm between rows x 25-120cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 500-1500kg/ha (years 2-5), oil 8-32kg/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: caterpillar, nematode
Diseases: phoma scab, septoria leaf spot, armillaria root rot.
Buyers want: 1.3% volatile oil or higher, good colour.
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Sowing rate: 5-10g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow 20-26 weeks before sale. Germination of english types (L. angustifolia) is frequently below 50%; scarification or freezing of seedflat can sometimes improve germination.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12-16 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8-10 weeks.
Pests: mealybug, whitefly, spider mite, scale
Diseases: few problems.
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Lemongrass
(Cymbopogon citratus, C. flexuosus) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (stem); (herb);
Market size: 50,000 hectares (world), 2,600 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: C. flexuosus 2000-2400 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, sandy loam, pH 5.5-6.5
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: C. flexuosus 5-10kg/ha (direct).
Planting: C. citratus grown from cuttings only. Sow C. flexuosus in spring. Heavy feeder. Oil quality of C. citratus highest at 18-24 months.
Field spacing: C. citratus 100cm between rows x 45cm within rows; broadcast C. flexuosus, or sow in rows 60-100cm apart.
Yield: C. citratus dry herb 4-6t/ha, oil 30-40kg/ha (years 1-5); C. flexuosus dry herb 10-15t/ha, 80kg/ha (years 1-5).
Pests: no data
Diseases: C. citratus himantia web blight, myriogenospora tangletop, helminthosperium eyespot, papularia.
Buyers want: high citral content.
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Sowing rate: 5g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow C. flexuosus in plugs 13-14 weeks before sale. C. citratus grown from cuttings only.
Seeds to finished plugs: 10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3-8 weeks.
Pests: spider mite, whitefly, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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Licorice
(Glycyrrhiza spp. ) |
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Market
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Products: (root);
Market size: 45,000 hectares (world), 480 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices down, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 400-600 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: deep, rich, moist, sandy, slightly alkaline, pH 7.3-7.8
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 3-4 kg/ha (direct), 5-10g/1000 plants (indirect).
Planting: soak seeds 2-3 hours in 30°C water or scarify before planting to weaken hard seed coat. Sow direct in spring or in deep plugs 12-16 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 70-90cm between rows x 45-90cm within rows.
Yield: G. glabra dry root 10-20t/ha (year 3-5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: uromyces rust, cercospora blight.
Buyers want: minimum 4% glycyrrhizinic acid, minimum 20% water soluble extractive.
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Sowing rate: 5-10g/1000plants.
Planting: soak seed in warm water (30°C) for 2-3 hours or scarify before sowing. Sow in flats or deep plugs 22-26 weeks before sale. Highly susceptible to damping-off; preventative application of damping-off control recommended.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12-16 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: damping-off.
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Lobelia
(Lobelia inflata ) |
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Market
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Products: (seed, herb);
Market size: 9,000 hectares (world), 1,700 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 30,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, rich soil
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 0.2-1kg/ha (direct), 0.1kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow in plugs or seedflats 12 weeks before field planting. Harvest herb when upper flowers are in bloom and lowest flowers have developed seed capsules when lobeline and lobelidine alkaloid content highest.
Field spacing: 30cm between rows x 15cm within rows.
Yield: dry herb 1100kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: wireworms
Diseases: cercospora, phyllosticta and septoria leaf spots.
Buyers want: no data.
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Sowing rate: 0.5g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow in plugs 14 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4-6 weeks.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
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Marjoram
(Origanum majorana) |
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Market
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Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 12,000 hectares (world), 800 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 3,500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, pH 6.5-7.5
Crop duration: 1 year (2-3 years in zone 9+)
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Sowing rate: 5-6kg/ha (direct), 0.2-0.3kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: requires warmth to do well; germinates best above 15°C daytime and 10°C nighttime. Sow direct in warmer zones; or sow indirect in plugs 12 weeks before field planting in cooler zones.
Field spacing: 30-40cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: 2.5-3t/ha (years 1-3).
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: botrytis gray mold, alternaria, puccinia rust, septoria.
Buyers want: no data.
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Sowing rate: 1g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or direct in pots 6-8 weeks before sale. Minimum 15°C days, 10°C nights.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 2-4 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite, thrip
Diseases: few problems.
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Chinese Milkvetch, Astragalus
(Astragalus membranaceus) |
|
Market
|
Products: (root);
Market size: 1,700 hectares (world), 560 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 130-160 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, deep, moist, alkaline
Crop duration: 4-5 years
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|
Sowing rate: 6-8 kg/ha (direct), 3-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: can be started in deep plugs, but suffers transplant shock easily. Probably better to sow direct in field, in early spring or fall. Scarification helps speed germination. Harvested in fall, lateral roots trimmed, dried partially and then sliced 0.5 cm thick, and then further dried.
Field spacing: 75-100cm between rows x 25cm within rows.
Yield: 7000kg/ha (year 4-5).
Pests: no data
Diseases: unidentified root rot when in wet conditions.
Buyers want: no data.
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|
Sowing rate: 75g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow in deep plugs 19-20 weeks before sale; transplant before plugs are root-bound. Highly susceptible to mites.
Seeds to finished plugs: 10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 9 weeks.
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: damping-off.
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Mint
(Mentha spp.) |
|
Market
|
Products: (leaf, herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 240,000 hectares (world), 16,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 17,000-20,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: rich, moist, well-drained, pH 6.5-7
Crop duration: 2-3 years
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|
Sowing rate: 1 kg/ha (direct), 0.1-0.2kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: commercial plantings propagated vegetatively; seed not suitable because of poor oil quality. Root cuttings planted in early spring or fall. Fields must be rotated every 2-3 years to prevent disease buildup.
Field spacing: 40-90cm between rows x 15-45cm within rows.
Yield: peppermint herb oil 35-125kg/ha, fresh herb 10-25t/ha, dried herb 1-3t/ha (years 2-3).
Pests: nematode, aphid
Diseases: puccinia rust, verticillum wilt, leaf spot, sphaceloma spot anthracnose.
Buyers want: peppermint minimum 1-1.2% volatile oil, not more than 10% leaves spotted with puccinia rust, not more than 5% stems, 2% foreign matter or 11% water.
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Sowing rate: 0.5-1g/1000 plants.
Planting: most cultivars grown from cuttings. Seed material not recommended for pot plant sales.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite, aphid, mealybug
Diseases: rust.
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| |
Nettle
(Urtica dioica ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (herb, root, leaf, seed);
Market size: 1,600 hectares (world), 240 ha (North America)
Prospects: Prices stable, volume stable
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 6,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun or part shade
Soil: rich, moist, pH 6-7
Crop duration: 3-5 years
|
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|
Sowing rate: 5kg/ha (direct), 0.6kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow in plugs 12 weeks before field planting, or direct in spring.
Field spacing: 30cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: 1000-2000kg/ha (years 3-5).
Pests: no data
Diseases: no data.
Buyers want: maximum 10% stems, 2% other foreign matter, total ash 20%, acid-insoluble ash 4%.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 2g/1000 plants (indirect).
Planting: sow in plugs 18 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: spider mite, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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| |
Oregano
(Origanum spp. ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 8,000 hectares (world), 2,400 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up Varieties: most oregano is wildcrafted in Europe. In North America, much of the oregano is Lippia graveolens, the mexican variety.
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|
Culture |
Seed density: 3800-4500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, sandy, dry, pH 6-8
Crop duration: 3-5 years
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 2.5-3kg/ha (direct), 0.2-0.5kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: greek variety is best for commercial fresh and dry herb and oil production. Sow direct in spring when soil temperature is at least 15°C, or sow in plugs 6 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 30-40cm between rows x 7-15cm within rows.
Yield: dry herb 1000-3000kg/ha, fresh herb 10-20t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: unspecified fungal diseases can occur in wet weather.
Buyers want: strong scent, good green colour.
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|
Sowing rate: 0.5-1g/1000 plants.
Planting: most varieties cannot be grown from seeds; only greek variety is raised from seed commercially. Sow in plugs 12 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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| |
Parsley
(Petroselinum crispum) |
|
Market
|
Products: (leaf); (leaf, root);
Market size: 250,000 hectares (world), 25,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 650-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: tolerates most soils, but rich, well-drained, moist, pH 6-7 is best
Crop duration: 1 year
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|
Sowing rate: 3-7 kg/ha (direct), 0.5-1.5kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field early spring or fall in warmer zones. Two or three cuts are possible.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 10-20cm within rows.
Yield: fresh herb 5-10t/ha, dry herb 1-2t/ha (year 1).
Pests: carrot root fly
Diseases: septoria and alternaria leaf spot.
Buyers want: good green colour (dry and fresh herb).
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 2-4g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or direct in pots. Sow 4-5 seeds per plug or 12 per pot.
Seeds to saleable plants: 12 weeks.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite, aphid
Diseases: few problems.
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| |
Chile Pepper
(Capsicum annuum, C. spp.) |
|
Market
|
Products: (fruit); (fruit);
Market size: 100,000 hectares (world), 10,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 80-250 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained, loam, pH 6.5-7.5
Crop duration: 1 year
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 10kg/ha (direct), 0.5-1kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: should not follow in soils where pepper, eggplant, tobacco, potato, tomato and other Solanaceae were grown previously. Needs 21-30°C to do well. Minimum 16°C soil temperature required for germination In cooler temperate zones. Sow in flats or plugs 8-12 weeks before spring field planting. In warmer zones (e.g. southern U.S.), can be sown direct in field. Cultivation similar to bell peppers, except longer, warmer season required (65-80 days). Easily killed by frost. Excess nitrogen feeding will reduce fruit production. Irrigation necessary in drier areas; can improve yields 6-fold.
Field spacing: 90-130cm between rows x 30-60cm within rows.
Yield: fresh fruit 8-15t/ha, dry fruit 2t/ha (year 1).
Pests: aphid, ground beetle, pepper weevil
Diseases: xanthomonas bacterial spot, anthracnose, and many others.
Buyers want: varies greatly depending on the market.
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|
|
Sowing rate: 10-25g/1000plants.
Planting: sow 10-12 weeks before sale. Sow in flats or plugs. Mostly sold in 4- or 6-packs in spring like bedding annuals, or in pots.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite, aphid
Diseases: few problems.
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| |
Rosemary
(Rosmarinus officinalis ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (leaf); (leaf); (herb);
Market size: Most commercial product is from wildcrafted sources. Cultivated acreage is 200 hectares (North America); world acreage unknown
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained; pH 6.0-7.5
Crop duration: 10-20 years
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 1.5-3 kg/ha (direct), 0.2-0.6kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing not recommended because seeds are slow to germinate and seedlings are slow to establish. Sow in seedflats 20 weeks before field spring planting. Germination can be enhanced by exposing seedflat to 24-27°C for 1 week and then lower to 18°C for germination. Where rosemary is not hardy growers dig up plants and overwinter in cool greenhouses. Named cultivars must be grown from cuttings; seed only available for standard species.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 25-50cm within rows.
Yield: fresh herb 2000kg/ha (years 2-20).
Pests: no data
Diseases: root rot.
Buyers want: dried leaf minimum volatile oil 1.2%, maximum foreign matter 10%, maximum woody stems 2%, maximum ash 7%.
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|
|
Sowing rate: 10-15g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow in seedflats 22 weeks before sale in 10cm pots.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, scale, mealybug
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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| |
Sage
(Salvia officinalis ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (herb); (herb, sprouts); (herb);
Market size: 160,000 hectares (world), 2,400 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 125 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, rich, light or heavy, pH 6-6.5
Crop duration: 4-5 years
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 5-15 kg/ha (direct), 0.5-2kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring or sow in plugs 8 weeks before field planting. Trim plants to 15 cm in early spring to encourage new shoots. 'Die-back' occurs in heavy soils that do not drain well.
Field spacing: 50-75cm between rows x 30-50cm within rows.
Yield: dresh herb 10-20t/ha, dry herb 2.5-5t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: few problems with pests
Diseases: verticillium wilt, oidium powdery mildew.
Buyers want: minimum volatile oil 1.5%, maximum ash 8-12%, maximum foreign matter 3%.
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|
|
Sowing rate: 20-30g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or flats 12-14 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4-6 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite, mealybug
Diseases: damping-off, powdery mildew.
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| |
St. Johnswort
(Hypericum perfoliatum ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (herb); (herb);
Market size: 2,400 hectares (world), 800 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices down, volume down
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 7,000-10,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, dry, pH 6-7
Crop duration: 2-3 years
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|
|
Sowing rate: 1-1.5kg/ha (direct), 0.1-0.5kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing has been tried with success, but seedlings are slow to establish and weed control is a problem. Sow direct in field in spring. Or, sow indirect in plugs 8 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 20-90cm between rows x 20-30cm within rows.
Yield: 1000-1200kg/ha (years 2-3).
Pests: chrysolina beetle, nematode
Diseases: colletotrichum anthracnose. Chrysolina beetle has become a serious problem is some areas after several years of cultivation. Serious anthracnose damage has been reported in areas where St. Johnswort has been cultivated for several years. There is evidence of a correlation between chrysolina infestation and anthracnose.
Buyers want: minimum 0.3% hypericin, maximum 5-8% ash, 2% foreign matter, 10% loss on drying.
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|
|
Sowing rate: 2g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs 10-12 weeks prior to sale. anthracnose disease (reddening of foliage and dieback) is a serious problem in plug production; avoid overwatering and watering late in day. Anthracnose spreads by unknown vector; may be insect or splashing water.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 2-4 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: colletotrichum anthracnose.
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| |
Savory
(Satureja hortensis, S. montana) |
|
Market
|
Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 800 hectares (world), 320 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 1700-2600 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained
Crop duration: S. hortensis 1 year; S. montana 3-6 years
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|
|
Sowing rate: S. hortensis 6-20 kg/ha (direct); S. montana 6 kg/ha (direct), 0.2-1kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in spring. S. montana best sown in plugs 8 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: S. hortensis 15-90cm between rows x 15-20cm within rows; S. montana 30-60cm x 17-20cm.
Yield: S. hortensis dry herb 2500-5000kg/ha, oil 30kg/ha (year 1); S. montana dry herb 1-3t/ha (years 2-6).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: No data.
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|
|
Sowing rate: 2-5g/1000plants.
Planting: S. hortensis can be sown direct in pots, 6 weeks before sale. Sow S. montana in plugs 12 weeks before sale.
Seeds to saleable plants: S. hortensis 6 weeks.
Seeds to finished plugs: S. montana 4-6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: S. montana 8 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite, aphid
Diseases: few problems.
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| |
Scullcap
(Scutellaria lateriflora, S. baicalensis) |
|
Market
|
Products: (herb – S. lateriflora, root – S. baicalensis);
Market size: 5,000 hectares (world), 400 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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|
Culture |
Seed density: S. lateriflora 3400; S. baicalensis 550 seeds/gram
Exposure: sun or partial shade.
Soil: fertile, damp, light, well-drained, pH 6-7
Crop duration: 3-4 years
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|
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Sowing rate: S. lateriflora 1-1.5 kg/ha (direct), 0.1-1kg/ha (indirect); S. baicalensis 8-12 kg/ha (direct), 0.3-2kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: S. lateriflora best sown in plugs 8 weeks before field planting; herb harvested in 3-4 years. S. baicalensis best sown direct in field in spring; root harvested in 3-4 years in spring or autumn.
Field spacing: 15-60cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: no data (years 3-4).
Pests: no data
Diseases: no data.
Buyers want: presence of scutellarin in S. lateriflora, baicalin in S. baicalensis.
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|
|
Sowing rate: 5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs 15 weeks before sale. Very sensitive to overwatering.
Seeds to finished plugs: 10-12 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4 weeks.
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
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| |
Sorrel
(Rumex acetosa, R. acetosella, R. scutatus ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (leaf); (leaf);
Market size: 400 hectares (world), 140 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: S. acetosa 1000; S. acetosella 2,200, S. scutatus 700 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun or partial shade
Soil: cool, moist, acidic
Crop duration: 2-3 years
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|
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Sowing rate: S. acetosa 3kg/ha (direct), 0.5kg/ha; S. acetosella 2kg/ha (direct), 0.3kg/ha (indirect); S. scutatus 5kg/ha (direct), 1kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in spring. Or, sow in plugs 6-8 weeks before field planting. Flowering stocks should be removed in S. acetosa, or use non-flowering variety 'Profusion'.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 30cm within rows.
Yield: no data (years 1-3).
Pests: unidentified insect puncturing leaves in R. acetosa, slugs
Diseases: leaf spot, puccinia rust, aster yellows.
Buyers want: no data.
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|
|
Sowing rate: S. acetosa 5g/1000plants; S. acetosella 2g/1000plants; S. scutatus 7g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots 10 weeks before sale. Or, sow in plugs 10-12 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6-8weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 2-4 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, aphid, slugs
Diseases: few problems.
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| |
Tarragon
(Artemisia dracunculus ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 3,000 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 6200 (russian variety is not recommended) seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: deep, well-drained, fertile, pH 6.5
Crop duration: 2-4 years
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 0.1kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: seeds not recommended. Seed-grown russian variety does not have flavour. Best grown from vegetatatively-propagated stock.
Field spacing: 45-60cm between rows x 30cm within rows.
Yield: fresh herb 7-18t/ha (years 1-4), dry herb 1500-2600kg/ha (years 1-4).
Pests: puccinia rust
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: good green colour, good anise aroma.
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|
|
Sowing rate: 1g/1000plants.
Planting: seed not recommended; start with plugs.
Plugs to saleable plants: 7 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
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|
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| |
Milk Thistle
(Silybum marianum ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (seed, herb)
Market size: 5,000 hectares (world), 500 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 42 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained
Crop duration: 1 year
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 4-5 kg/ha (direct).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring when soil temperature remains above 10 C.
Field spacing: 70-80cm between rows x 20-30cm within rows.
Yield: 1.5t/ha (year 1).
Pests: tanymecus larva
Diseases: erysiphe powdery mildew, botrytis grey mold.
Buyers want: seed minimum 1% silymarin, maximum 2% foreign matter, maximum loss on drying 8%, maximum ash 8%.
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Thyme
(Thymus spp.) |
|
Market
|
Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 33,000 hectares (world), 2,400 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 3300-4000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, light, fertile to poor, pH 6.5-7
Crop duration: 3-4 years
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 0.5-1kg/ha (direct), 0.1-0.5kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in spring in clean field, or sow in plugs 8-10 weeks before field planting. Winter mulch where lows reach -10 C.
Field spacing: 60-90cm between rows x 10-45cm within rows.
Yield: T. vulgaris fresh herb 5-6t/ha, dry herb 2t/ha (years 1-4).
Pests: tortrix lepidoptera, nematode
Diseases: puccinia rust, aecidium rust, alternaria blight, botrytis gray mold, rhizoctonia root rot.
Buyers want: dry herb minimum 1.2-1.5% volatile oil, 0.5% thymol, maximum 3-15% stem fragments, 2% foreign matter, 10% loss on drying, 10-15% ash.
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|
|
Sowing rate: 1-3g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs 12-14 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6-8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4-6 weeks.
Pests: spider mite, scale, mealybug, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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| |
Alfalfa
(Medicago sativa ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (seeds, leaf, herb); (herb, sprouts)
Market size: (excluding acreage planted for fodder): 12,000 hectares (world); 5,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices and acreage up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 350 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained; pH 6.0-7.5
Crop duration: 1-4 years
|
|
(herb) |
Sowing rate: 9-13kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring, broadcast or sow in rows, 15-30cm apart. Two or more cuts at bud stage possible; last cut 6 weeks before killing frost. Heavy potash and phosphorus feeder.
Yield: dry herb 8-10,000kg/ha (years 1-4).
Pests: weevil, leafminer, leafhopper, snout beetle
Diseases: verticillium wilt, leafspot, phytophthora root rot.
Buyers want: organic product.
|
|
(sprouts) |
Planting: soak seeds overnight; drain, keep moist. Ready in 3-5 days.
Yield: 4kg(sprouts)/kg(seeds).
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|
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| |
Arnica
(A. montana, A. chamissonis) |
|
Market
|
Products: (flower, root); (flower);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 160 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume down
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 700-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, humus-rich, pH 7 (A. chamissonis), pH 4.5-6 (A. montana)
Crop duration: 3-5 years
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 1-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing not recommended. Sow in seedflats or plugs. Sow A. montana 16-20 weeks before transplanting to field; sow A. chamissonis 12 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 15-60cm between rows x 15-20cm within rows.
Harvest: flower (years 2-5), root (year 3 or 4).
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: chlorosis (yellow leaves) in A. montana caused by alkaline soil.
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 8-10g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in seedflats or plugs 20 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8 weeks.
Pests: few problems, whitefly occasionally
Diseases: few problems.
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|
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| |
Lemon Balm
(Melissa officinalis) |
|
Market
|
Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 1000 hectares (world), 75 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 2000 seeds/gram
Exposure: sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained clay or sandy loam, pH 6 to 7.5
Crop duration: 2-4 years
|
|
|
Sowing rate: 7-9kg/ha (direct), 250-400g/ha (indirect, in plugs).
Planting: sowing in plugs in greenhouse in early spring till mid-summer is most common method; sow 6-8 weeks before transplanting to field. Direct sowing is not as common because weed control is more difficult; sow in early spring or late fall (to come up next spring).
Field spacing: 50-75cm between rows x 18-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry herb 5000kg/ha, fresh herb 10-25t/ha (years 1-3).
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: erisyphe powdery mildew, septoria blight, puccinia rust.
Buyers want: dry carefully to conserve oil in dried herb.
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|
|
Sowing rate: 3-5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in flats or plugs 11-14 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spidermite, thrip
Diseases: mildew.
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|
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| |
Basil
(Ocimum basilicum, and others ) |
|
Market
|
Products: (leaf, herb); (herb); (oil);
Market size: 10,000 hectares (world), 1,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
|
|
Culture |
Seed density: 500-1000 (O. gratissimum 2600, O. kilamandscharicum 2800, O. sanctum 1500-2500) seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: rich, well-drained
Crop duration: 1 year (O. basilicum), 1-3 years (others)
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|
|
Sowing rate: 20kg/ha (direct); 3-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in spring when nighttime temperatures exceed 10°C; or sow in flats or plugs 8 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 15-25cm within rows.
Yield: fresh herb 15,000kg/ha, dry herb 1,500-2,000kg/ha, oil 30kg/ha (year 1)
Pests: aphids, thrips
Diseases: O. basilicum varieties are highly susceptible to fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum) disease. Disease persists in soil for several years. Commercial field plantings should be sown with fusarium-tolerant Nufar F1. Hydroponic operations may choose fusarium-free varieties if equipment and facilities are free of fusarium (spreads by contaminated seeds and equipment). Other basil species (e.g. O. americanum and O. gratissimum) are fusarium-tolerant.
Buyers want: not less than 0.4% essential oil in dried product.
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Sowing rate: 3-4g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in final pots, or in plugs and later transplant to final pots. Nighttime temperature must not go below 10°C.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, thrips, aphids
Diseases: fusarium (see above).
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Bay Laurel
(Laurus nobilis ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (leaf);
Market size: 2,000 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 1 seeds/gram
Exposure: sheltered position in full or half sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, moist
Crop duration: 20-50 years
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Sowing rate: 30-60kg/ha
Planting: sow stratified seeds in beds or flats.
Yield: not available.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: leaves dried flat for visual appearance.
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Sowing rate: 5kg/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or flats in March or April.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks (after stratification).
Plugs to saleable plants: 10 weeks to a year.
Pests: whitefly, scale, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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Borage
(Borago officinalis ) |
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Market
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Products: (seed, herb, flower, root); (herb, flower, root), (seed);
Market size: 5,000 hectares (world); 2,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, acreage up
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Culture |
Seed density: 50 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: best in well-drained, fertile, moist soil, but tolerates most soils, pH 5-8
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 5-17 kg/ha
Planting: sow direct in late spring in rows 45-90cm apart, 30-45cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 300kg/ha; fresh flower 1,000-5,000kg/ha; seed 90-450kg/ha.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: 24% gamma lineolenic acid content in seed oil.
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Sowing rate: 50-80g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots or plugs.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
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Burdock
(Arctium lappa) |
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Market
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Products: (root, leaf); (root);
Market size: 3,000 hectares (world), 170 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 60-110 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or part sun
Soil: deep, loose, humus-rich, pH 6-8
Crop duration: 1-2 years
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Sowing rate: 4 kg/ha (direct), 1.5kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring. Or, sow in beds or plugs and transplant to field in spring. For use as fresh vegetable, dig first year roots when young and tender at 3-5 months. For dry root production, dig in fall of second year.
Field spacing: 45-90cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry root 2,000kg/ha (years 2 or 3).
Pests: few problems, grasshopper
Diseases: few problems.
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Sowing rate: 20g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs 9-10 weeks before sale.
Seeds to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Calendula
(C. officinalis) |
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Market
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Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 880 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 150 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained; can tolerate poor soil with low nitrogen.
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 3-9kg/ha (direct), 1kg/ha (indirect in plugs).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring or autumn; or sow in plugs 4-6 weeks before field planting. Seeds need light to germinate; cover seeds lightly or press in soil only.
Field spacing: 20-70cm between rows x 10-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 1-2,000kg/ha, fresh flower 6-9,000kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: blister-beetle, cabbage-looper, caterpillar, leafhopper
Diseases: leaf spot, aster-yellows.
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Sowing rate: 15g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or direct in pots 10-12 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 4-6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, aphid, thrip, mealybug
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Caraway
(Carum carvi) |
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Market
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Products: (seed); (seed)
Market size: 19,000 hectares (world), 2,500 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 350-400 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, pH 6-7.8.
Crop duration: 1-2 years (depending on variety)
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Sowing rate: 8-11 kg/ha.
Planting: sow standard biennial type direct in field late June or early July; harvest following year in August. Sow annual type in May (suited for warmer regions with 5-6 frost-free months). Sometimes sown with annual cover crops such as coriander, dill, mustard the first year.
Field spacing: 10-50cm between rows x 4-15cm within rows.
Yield: seed 600-3,000kg/ha, oil 4.5-7kg/ha (year 1 or 2, depending on variety).
Pests: leafhopper
Diseases: aster yellows.
Buyers want: seed minimum 3% oil, maximum 12% moisture.
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Catnip
(Nepeta cataria ) |
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Market
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Products: (herb, leaf);
Market size: 2,400 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 1500-1600 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or partial sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, sandy, pH 6.5
Crop duration: 2-5 years
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Sowing rate: 12 kg/ha (direct), 1kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring or late fall. Or, sow in plugs 8-10 weeks before field planting. Seed needs light to germinate; sow shallow 2-4mm deep.
Field spacing: 45-90cm between rows x 30-40cm within rows.
Harvest: leaf, herb (years 2-5).
Yield: dry herb 3-6t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
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Sowing rate: 3g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or seedflats 12-15 weeks before sale. Sow 2-4mm deep.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8-10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3-5 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
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Chamomile
(Matricaria recutita, Chamaemelum nobile ) |
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Market
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Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 40,000 hectares (world), 4,800 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 10,000-18,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained, moist to dry
Crop duration: 1 year (M. recutita), 2-3 years (C. nobile)
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Sowing rate: 3-4 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect)
Planting: german (M. recutita) is sown direct in field in spring or fall. Fall sowings germinate following spring. Roman (C. nobile) is sown direct or indirect in plugs which are later planted in field. Surface sow only (needs light to germinate). Hand harvesting flowers problematic in areas where labour cost is high; mechanical harvesting still unproven.
Field spacing: 10-50cm between rows x 10-25cm within rows, or broadcast sown.
Yield: dry flower 350-500kg/ha (M. recutita; year 1), 600-1000 kg/ha (C. nobile; years 1-3).
Pests: cnephasia moth
Diseases: aster yellows.
Buyers want: 0.4% or more volatile oil.
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Sowing rate: 1g/1000plants.
Planting: german (M. recutita) not normally sold in pots; roman (C. nobile) and its varieties are sold in pots or plugs. Seeds need light to germinate; surface sow only.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4-6 weeks.
Pests: aphid, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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Chives
(Allium schoenoprasum, A. tuberosum ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf, flower); (leaf, flower);
Market size: 24,000 hectares (world), 3,200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 750 (A. schoenoprasum), 200-300 (A. tuberosum) seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, humus-rich
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 2-3 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring, or sow indirect in plugs 12-16 weeks before field planting. Field must be free of quackgrass otherwise harvests will be contaminated.
Field spacing: 30cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: fresh leaf 10-20t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: aphid
Diseases: puccinia rust, downy mildew.
Buyers want: good green colour (dry leaf).
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Sowing rate: 5-20g/1000plants (A. schoenoprasum), 50g/1000plants (A. tuberosum)
Planting: sow 10-15 seeds per plug or pot, or sow same amount direct in pots.
Seeds to saleable plants: 24-30 weeks.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12-16 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 11 weeks.
Pests: aphid, thrip
Diseases: few problems.
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Comfrey
(Symphytum officinale, S. x uplandicum) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf, root); (root, herb);
Market size: 1,700 hectares (world), 240 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 90-100 seeds/gram
Exposure: full or part sun
Soil: moist, wet or dry
Crop duration: 2-5 years
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Sowing rate: 600-900g/ha (indirect).
Planting: although seed can be sown direct, the high cost of seed dictates indirect sowing in plugs or seedbed and transplanting to field. Root cuttings (12,000/ha) of named cultivars (e.g. Bocking No. 14) recommended over seed.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 90cm within rows.
Yield: dry leaf 12t/ha (years 2-5), dry root 1,800kg/ha (year 3, 4 or 5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: comfrey rust.
Buyers want: low pyrrolizidine alkaloid content, particularly echimidine; leaf should be cut early to avoid alkaloid buildup.
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Sowing rate: 50-70g/1000plants.
Planting: sow S. officinale in plugs or seedflats 12-14 weeks before sale. S. x uplandicum and ornamental varieties are propagated by division or root cutting.
Seeds to saleable plants: 12 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, aphid
Diseases: comfrey rust.
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Coriander, Cilantro
(Coriandrum sativum) |
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Market
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Products: (seed); (herb); (seed, herb);
Market size: 600,000 hectares (world), 5,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 110-150 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun (seed), full or half sun (fresh herb)
Soil: deep, fertile, light or heavy, well-drained, pH 6.5-7.5
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 25 kg/ha (seed), 80 kg/ha (fresh herb).
Planting: for seed and seed oil production, sow direct in spring. For fresh herb (cilantro) and herb oil production sow early spring and fall; will bolt in hot weather.
Field spacing: 50-60cm between rows x 11-13cm between plants (seed), 20-25cm between rows x 8-10cm (fresh herb).
Yield: seed 900-1,500kg/ha, fresh herb 10-12t/ha, oil 1-9kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: thrip
Diseases: asters yellow, erysiphe powdery mildew, puccinia rust, pseudamonas, and sclerotina.
Buyers want: less than 12% moisture.
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Sowing rate: 200g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots; do not transplant – root disturbance causes plants to bolt early.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: aphid, thrip, mite, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Dandelion
(Taraxacum officinale) |
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Market
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Products: (root, herb); (leaf)
Market size: 7,000 hectares (world); 500 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 1200-1900 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: most soils
Crop duration: 2 years (root), 1-4 years (fresh leaf)
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Sowing rate: 1-3kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in field in early spring or late summer. Fresh leaf gathered as vegetable spring, summer and fall. Herb for drying harvested spring or summer. Roots dug late fall.
Field spacing: 45cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: dry root 1100-1700kg/ha (year 2).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: water-soluble extractive not less than 30%.
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Dill
(Anethum graveolens, A. sowa ) |
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Market
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Products: (seed, herb); (leaf); (leaf, seed);
Market size: 37,000 hectares (world), 4,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices same, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 400-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, moderately rich, loose soil, pH 5.5-6.5
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 9-12 kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in spring.
Field spacing: 25-50cm between rows; thin to 10cm within rows for fresh herb production or 2-3cm within rows for seed production.
Yield: seed 600-900kg/ha, fresh herb 2500-5000kg/ha, dried herb 1000kg/ha, oil 50-110kg/ha.
Pests: aphid, tarnished plant bug
Diseases: powdery mildew, leafspot, aster yellows.
Buyers want: good green colour (dried leaf).
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Sowing rate: 15-40g/1000pots.
Planting: do not transplant; sow direct in pots, 8-20 seeds per pot.
Seeds to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: aphid
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Echinacea
(Echinacea purpurea, E. angustifolia, E. pallida ) |
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Market
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Products: (root, herb, flower, seed); (herb);
Market size: 16,000 hectares (world), 4,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices down, acreage up; market for E. purpurea herb is weak.
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Culture |
Seed density: 160-500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained, pH 6-7.5
Crop duration: 3-4 years
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Sowing rate: 14-18 kg/ha (direct), 1 kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: E. purpurea seeds do not require pretreatment. Can be started in plugs and transplanted to the field, which is the preferred method, or can be sown direct in the field. Sow E. purpurea 100-120 days before field planting; sow E. angustifolia and E. pallida 150 days before planting. E. angustifolia and E. pallida germination benefits from pretreatment; stratify at 5°C for 4-12 weeks with light. Pretreatment with Ethrel (1 millimolar for 2 weeks), or with bleach (1% for 10 min.) improves E. angustifolia germination.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 20-45cm within rows.
Yield: E. purpurea herb 6,500-11,000kg/ha (years 2-4); E. purpurea root 1000kg/ha (year 4); E. angustifolia root 1100kg/ha (year 4); no data for E. pallida root.
Pests: leafhopper
Diseases: aster yellows (spread by leafhoppers), sclerotinia stem and root rot, botrytis.
Buyers want: certificate of botanical identity required for E. angustifolia; echinacoside 1.4% (roots).
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Sowing rate: 10g/1000plants.
Planting: sow 14 weeks (E. purpurea) to 22 weeks (E. angustifolia, E. pallida) before sale. Stratify or pretreat E. angustifolia and E. pallida seed before sowing (see above).
Seeds to finished plugs: 8-12 weeks (after pretreatment).
Plugs to saleable plants: 6-10 weeks.
Pests: few problems, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Elecampane
(Inula helenium ) |
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Market
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Products: (root); (root);
Market size: 800 hectares (world), 25 ha (North America).
Prospects: prices same, volume same
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Culture |
Seed density: 600-800 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: moist, deep, well-drained
Crop duration: 2 years.
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Sowing rate: 400-600g/ha (direct); 5g/1000plants (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing not recommended. Start in plugs 8 weeks before spring or late summer field planting.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 45cm within rows.
Yield: 2500kg/ha (year 2).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: erysiphe powdery mildew (late summer), ramularia leafspot, puccinia rust.
Buyers want: not less than 1.8% volatile oil, not more than 6-8% ash, not less than 27% water-soluble extractive, not more than 2% foreign matter.
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Sowing rate: 5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs, seedflats or seed beds. Germination in 4-7 days.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 2-6 weeks.
Pests: spider mite, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Fennel
(Foeniculum vulgare) |
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Market
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Products: (seed); (leaf, bulb); (herb);
Market size: 70,000 hectares (world), 7,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 200-300 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, deep, moderately fertile, pH 7-8.
Crop duration: 2-3 years (florence fennel, 1 year)
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Sowing rate: 4-6kg/ha (direct), 30g/1000plants (indirect).
Planting: sow sweet fennel direct; bronze direct or indirect; florence indirect.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: seed 1000-1600kg/ha (years 2-3), fresh herb 8-10t/ha (year 1-3), dried herb 1.5-2.5t/ha (year 1-3), seed oil 40-75kg/ha.
Pests: aphid, lygus tarnished plant bug
Diseases: sclerotinia stemrot, rhizoctonia damping-off, erwinia soft rot.
Buyers want: not less than 2-4% volatile oil.
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Sowing rate: 30g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots or in plugs. Does not transplant well; best to sow direct.
Seeds to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3 weeks.
Pests: aphid
Diseases: damping-off.
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Fenugreek
(Trigonella foenum-graecum) |
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Market
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Products: (seeds, leaf, herb); (herb, sprouts); (seed)
Market size: 90,000 hectares (world), 7,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 100 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, fertile, warm soil
Crop duration: 1 year.
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Sowing rate: 25-35kg/ha.
Planting: sow direct in spring. Broadcast or in close rows.
Field spacing: 20cm between rows x 10-20cm within rows.
Yield: seed 700-900kg/ha, dried forage 2-10t/ha.
Pests: no data
Diseases: no data.
Buyers want: swelling index not less than 6, foreign matter not more than 2-5%, ash not more than 5-6% (seed).
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Feverfew
(Tanacetum parthenium) |
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Market
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Products: (herb);
Market size: 1,300 hectares (world), 160 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume down
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Culture |
Seed density: 7,500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: fertile, well-drained, dry soil
Crop duration: 1-2 years
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Sowing rate: 1-1.5 kg/ha (direct); 0.5g/1000plants.
Planting: plugs preferred over direct sowing because seeds very small. Sow plugs 8 weeks before spring planting date. Don't allow to go to seed to avoid winterkill. Frequent fertilization with low nitrogen fertilizer is beneficial. Long days trigger flowering. Short lived perennial; some growers treat as annual.
Field spacing: 20-90cm between rows x 10-20cm within rows.
Yield: 300-5000kg/ha (years 1-2).
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: minimum 0.4-0.8% parthenolide.
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Sowing rate: 0.5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow 14-16 weeks before sales in flats or plug trays.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6-8 weeks.
Pests: aphid, whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
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Scented Geranium
(Pelargonium spp. ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (leaf);
Market size: 4,000 hectares (world), 400 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 360-450 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, neutral to alkaline
Crop duration: 1 year temperate areas, 3-5 year in tropical areas.d o Planting: all commercially important varieties are propagated by cuttings. Plugs planted in spring after last frost date. FieldSpacing: 60-100cm between rows x 20-50cm within rows. Yield: fresh leaf 13-30t/ha, oil 13-17kg/ha (years 1-5). PestsDiseases: aphid, caterpillar / alternaria leaf spot.
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Seeds/ |
Planting: all commercially important varieties are propagated by cuttings. Plugs planted in spring after last frost date.
Field spacing: 60-100cm between rows x 20-50cm within rows.
Yield: fresh leaf 13-30t/ha, oil 13-17kg/ha (years 1-5).
Pests: aphid, caterpillar
Diseases: alternaria leaf spot.
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Sowing rate: 30-80g/1000 plants.
Planting: commercial propagation is by cutting only.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6-8 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, geranium and peach aphid, mite, mealybug, scale
Diseases: various leaf spots including xanthomonas, alternaria, botrytis.
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Gingko
(Ginkgo biloba ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (seed);
Market size: 5,000 hectares (world), 600 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 1 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: rich, well-drained, moist soil
Crop duration: 20-50+ years
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Sowing rate: 2-4kg/hectare.
Planting: seeds require stratification, 1-2 months warm, then 1-2 months cold, then sow in spring. Common nursery practice is to sow without stratification in outdoor seed beds in fall. Seedlings shaded for 2-3 years and fertilized with manure. Seedlings transplanted to permanent location when 7-8 years old. Trees kept short (2m) and spaced close (2-3m) in commercial plantations for medicinal leaf production; otherwise allowed to grow higher and spaced further for seed production. Slow growing. Leaves harvested in early fall as they begin to turn yellow; dried in sun. Fruits harvested late fall, seeds cleaned and roasted.
Field spacing: 3-5m apart (2-3m within rows for leaf production).
Yield: no data (leaf years 8-50, seed years 20-50).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: tolerates pollution.
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Sowing rate: 2-4kg/1000 plants.
Planting: stratify seed warm (1-2 months) followed by cold (1-2 months). Sow in deep plugs. Keep lightly shaded.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks to 1 year.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8 weeks (10cm pots), 2-5 years (larger plants).
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Ginseng
(Panax quinquefolius, P. ginseng; Eleutherococcus senticosus) |
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Market
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Products: (root)
Market size: Panax 70,000 hectares (world), 7,400 ha (North America)
Prospects: Panax prices down, volume up. Prospects for woodsgrown Panax much better than shadecloth grown.
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Culture |
Seed density: Panax 15; Eleutherococcus 100 seeds/gram
Exposure: Panax 70% shade; Eleutherococcus 30-50% shade
Soil: well-drained, sandy or clay loam, in raised beds, pH 5.5-6.0
Crop duration: Panax 3-4 years (shadecloth), 4-8 years (woodsgrown); Eleutherococcus 6-12 years
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Sowing rate: 40-100 kg/ha (shadecloth), 10-20 kg/ha (woodsgrown).
Planting: Panax seeds stratified one year. Sow stratified seeds in seedbeds and transplant seedlings to raised beds in years 1-2, or sow direct in raised beds. Mulch with straw. Remove shadecloth over winter. Eleutherococcus seeds need at least cycles of warm-cold stratification; best results obtained when sown in flats in fall and left out over winter under mulch.
Field spacing: Panax 15-20cm between rows x 15-20cm within rows, further apart in woodsgrown plantings; Eleutherococcus 60-100cm apart.
Yield: Panax (shadecloth) 3400kg/ha (years 3-4).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: Panax alternaria leaf blight, rhizoctonia wilt, phytophthora, powdery mildew; Eleutherococcus few problems.
Buyers want: ginsenosides not less than 1.5-2%, ash not more than 4-8%.
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Sowing rate: Panax 150g/1000 plants; Eleutherococcus 250g/1000plants.
Planting: sow stratified Panax seeds in deep plugs, 2-4 seeds per plug, or sow in seed flats. Provide shade, keep cool and well ventilated.
Seeds to finished plugs: Panax 6 months (after stratification).
Plugs to saleable plants: Panax 1 year.
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: Panax alternaria, rhizoctonia.
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Goldenseal
(Hydrastis canadensis) |
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Market
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Products: (root);
Market size: 17,000 hectares (world), 7,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices down, volume up. Majority of market supplied by wildcrafted material, but wild stocks are becoming depleted and now listed on CITES.
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Culture |
Seed density: 50-55 seeds/gram
Exposure: 50-75% Shade
Soil: well-drained, deep, fertile soil, pH 5.5-6.5, in raised beds or on gentle slope.
Crop duration: 3-6 years
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Sowing rate: 10kg/ha (direct), 100g/1000 plants (indirect); rootlets 100,000/ha.
Planting: growers prefer rootlets over seeds because they are more reliable and quicker to harvestable size (3 years); however, seed quality has improved recently and cost of seeds is much less than rootlets. Seeds take 5-6 years to get harvestable roots. Seeds must not dry out; must be sown immediately after harvest in late summer to come up following spring. Avoid straw mulch and fertilize lightly.
Field spacing: 15-40cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: 900-2300kg/ha (year 3-6).
Pests: slugs
Diseases: alternaria, phytophthora, rhizoctonia, botrytis leafspot, fusarium.
Buyers want: min. alkaloids 3.5%.
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Sowing rate: seed 100g/1000plants, rootlets 300-1000/1000 plants.
Planting: for potted plant production, best to start with rootlets. Pot up rootlets 4 weeks before sale. Provide cool, shaded, and well-ventilated conditions; will not tolerate full sun and high humidity.
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: alternaria and other diseases common in potted plants in greenhouses.
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Lavender
(Lavandula angustifolia, L. x intermedia) |
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Market
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Products: (flower); (flower);
Market size: 9,000 hectares (world), 1,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 850-1300 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained, deep, not too rich, pH 6.5-7.5
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 3-6kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: lavandins (L. x intermedia; e.g. 'Provence' and 'Grosso'), best for commercial flower and oil production, are propagated vegetatively only. Only english types are available in seed form, but seed grown material may not be uniform enough for field production. Direct sowing not recommended; germination is too slow (15-30 days). Sow in seedflats 12-16 weeks before outdoor planting; transplant to plugs at 4-6 weeks, then transplant to field.
Field spacing: 60-120cm between rows x 25-120cm within rows.
Yield: dry flower 500-1500kg/ha (years 2-5), oil 8-32kg/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: caterpillar, nematode
Diseases: phoma scab, septoria leaf spot, armillaria root rot.
Buyers want: 1.3% volatile oil or higher, good colour.
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Sowing rate: 5-10g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow 20-26 weeks before sale. Germination of english types (L. angustifolia) is frequently below 50%; scarification or freezing of seedflat can sometimes improve germination.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12-16 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 8-10 weeks.
Pests: mealybug, whitefly, spider mite, scale
Diseases: few problems.
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Lemongrass
(Cymbopogon citratus, C. flexuosus) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (stem); (herb);
Market size: 50,000 hectares (world), 2,600 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: C. flexuosus 2000-2400 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, sandy loam, pH 5.5-6.5
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: C. flexuosus 5-10kg/ha (direct).
Planting: C. citratus grown from cuttings only. Sow C. flexuosus in spring. Heavy feeder. Oil quality of C. citratus highest at 18-24 months.
Field spacing: C. citratus 100cm between rows x 45cm within rows; broadcast C. flexuosus, or sow in rows 60-100cm apart.
Yield: C. citratus dry herb 4-6t/ha, oil 30-40kg/ha (years 1-5); C. flexuosus dry herb 10-15t/ha, 80kg/ha (years 1-5).
Pests: no data
Diseases: C. citratus himantia web blight, myriogenospora tangletop, helminthosperium eyespot, papularia.
Buyers want: high citral content.
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Sowing rate: 5g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow C. flexuosus in plugs 13-14 weeks before sale. C. citratus grown from cuttings only.
Seeds to finished plugs: 10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3-8 weeks.
Pests: spider mite, whitefly, mealybug
Diseases: few problems.
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Licorice
(Glycyrrhiza spp. ) |
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Market
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Products: (root);
Market size: 45,000 hectares (world), 480 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices down, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 400-600 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: deep, rich, moist, sandy, slightly alkaline, pH 7.3-7.8
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 3-4 kg/ha (direct), 5-10g/1000 plants (indirect).
Planting: soak seeds 2-3 hours in 30°C water or scarify before planting to weaken hard seed coat. Sow direct in spring or in deep plugs 12-16 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 70-90cm between rows x 45-90cm within rows.
Yield: G. glabra dry root 10-20t/ha (year 3-5).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: uromyces rust, cercospora blight.
Buyers want: minimum 4% glycyrrhizinic acid, minimum 20% water soluble extractive.
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Sowing rate: 5-10g/1000plants.
Planting: soak seed in warm water (30°C) for 2-3 hours or scarify before sowing. Sow in flats or deep plugs 22-26 weeks before sale. Highly susceptible to damping-off; preventative application of damping-off control recommended.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12-16 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: damping-off.
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Lobelia
(Lobelia inflata ) |
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Market
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Products: (seed, herb);
Market size: 9,000 hectares (world), 1,700 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 30,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, rich soil
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 0.2-1kg/ha (direct), 0.1kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow in plugs or seedflats 12 weeks before field planting. Harvest herb when upper flowers are in bloom and lowest flowers have developed seed capsules when lobeline and lobelidine alkaloid content highest.
Field spacing: 30cm between rows x 15cm within rows.
Yield: dry herb 1100kg/ha (year 1).
Pests: wireworms
Diseases: cercospora, phyllosticta and septoria leaf spots.
Buyers want: no data.
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Sowing rate: 0.5g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow in plugs 14 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4-6 weeks.
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
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Marjoram
(Origanum majorana) |
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Market
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Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 12,000 hectares (world), 800 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 3,500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, pH 6.5-7.5
Crop duration: 1 year (2-3 years in zone 9+)
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Sowing rate: 5-6kg/ha (direct), 0.2-0.3kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: requires warmth to do well; germinates best above 15°C daytime and 10°C nighttime. Sow direct in warmer zones; or sow indirect in plugs 12 weeks before field planting in cooler zones.
Field spacing: 30-40cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: 2.5-3t/ha (years 1-3).
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: botrytis gray mold, alternaria, puccinia rust, septoria.
Buyers want: no data.
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Sowing rate: 1g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or direct in pots 6-8 weeks before sale. Minimum 15°C days, 10°C nights.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 2-4 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite, thrip
Diseases: few problems.
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Chinese Milkvetch, Astragalus
(Astragalus membranaceus) |
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Market
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Products: (root);
Market size: 1,700 hectares (world), 560 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 130-160 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, deep, moist, alkaline
Crop duration: 4-5 years
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Sowing rate: 6-8 kg/ha (direct), 3-4kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: can be started in deep plugs, but suffers transplant shock easily. Probably better to sow direct in field, in early spring or fall. Scarification helps speed germination. Harvested in fall, lateral roots trimmed, dried partially and then sliced 0.5 cm thick, and then further dried.
Field spacing: 75-100cm between rows x 25cm within rows.
Yield: 7000kg/ha (year 4-5).
Pests: no data
Diseases: unidentified root rot when in wet conditions.
Buyers want: no data.
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Sowing rate: 75g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow in deep plugs 19-20 weeks before sale; transplant before plugs are root-bound. Highly susceptible to mites.
Seeds to finished plugs: 10 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 9 weeks.
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: damping-off.
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Mint
(Mentha spp.) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf, herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 240,000 hectares (world), 16,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 17,000-20,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: rich, moist, well-drained, pH 6.5-7
Crop duration: 2-3 years
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Sowing rate: 1 kg/ha (direct), 0.1-0.2kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: commercial plantings propagated vegetatively; seed not suitable because of poor oil quality. Root cuttings planted in early spring or fall. Fields must be rotated every 2-3 years to prevent disease buildup.
Field spacing: 40-90cm between rows x 15-45cm within rows.
Yield: peppermint herb oil 35-125kg/ha, fresh herb 10-25t/ha, dried herb 1-3t/ha (years 2-3).
Pests: nematode, aphid
Diseases: puccinia rust, verticillum wilt, leaf spot, sphaceloma spot anthracnose.
Buyers want: peppermint minimum 1-1.2% volatile oil, not more than 10% leaves spotted with puccinia rust, not more than 5% stems, 2% foreign matter or 11% water.
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Sowing rate: 0.5-1g/1000 plants.
Planting: most cultivars grown from cuttings. Seed material not recommended for pot plant sales.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite, aphid, mealybug
Diseases: rust.
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Nettle
(Urtica dioica ) |
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Market
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Products: (herb, root, leaf, seed);
Market size: 1,600 hectares (world), 240 ha (North America)
Prospects: Prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 6,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun or part shade
Soil: rich, moist, pH 6-7
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 5kg/ha (direct), 0.6kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow in plugs 12 weeks before field planting, or direct in spring.
Field spacing: 30cm between rows x 10cm within rows.
Yield: 1000-2000kg/ha (years 3-5).
Pests: no data
Diseases: no data.
Buyers want: maximum 10% stems, 2% other foreign matter, total ash 20%, acid-insoluble ash 4%.
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Sowing rate: 2g/1000 plants (indirect).
Planting: sow in plugs 18 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: spider mite, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Oregano
(Origanum spp. ) |
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Market
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Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 8,000 hectares (world), 2,400 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up Varieties: most oregano is wildcrafted in Europe. In North America, much of the oregano is Lippia graveolens, the mexican variety.
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Culture |
Seed density: 3800-4500 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, sandy, dry, pH 6-8
Crop duration: 3-5 years
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Sowing rate: 2.5-3kg/ha (direct), 0.2-0.5kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: greek variety is best for commercial fresh and dry herb and oil production. Sow direct in spring when soil temperature is at least 15°C, or sow in plugs 6 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 30-40cm between rows x 7-15cm within rows.
Yield: dry herb 1000-3000kg/ha, fresh herb 10-20t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: unspecified fungal diseases can occur in wet weather.
Buyers want: strong scent, good green colour.
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Sowing rate: 0.5-1g/1000 plants.
Planting: most varieties cannot be grown from seeds; only greek variety is raised from seed commercially. Sow in plugs 12 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Parsley
(Petroselinum crispum) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (leaf, root);
Market size: 250,000 hectares (world), 25,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 650-1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: tolerates most soils, but rich, well-drained, moist, pH 6-7 is best
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 3-7 kg/ha (direct), 0.5-1.5kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field early spring or fall in warmer zones. Two or three cuts are possible.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 10-20cm within rows.
Yield: fresh herb 5-10t/ha, dry herb 1-2t/ha (year 1).
Pests: carrot root fly
Diseases: septoria and alternaria leaf spot.
Buyers want: good green colour (dry and fresh herb).
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Sowing rate: 2-4g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or direct in pots. Sow 4-5 seeds per plug or 12 per pot.
Seeds to saleable plants: 12 weeks.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 6 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite, aphid
Diseases: few problems.
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Chile Pepper
(Capsicum annuum, C. spp.) |
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Market
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Products: (fruit); (fruit);
Market size: 100,000 hectares (world), 10,000 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 80-250 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained, loam, pH 6.5-7.5
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 10kg/ha (direct), 0.5-1kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: should not follow in soils where pepper, eggplant, tobacco, potato, tomato and other Solanaceae were grown previously. Needs 21-30°C to do well. Minimum 16°C soil temperature required for germination In cooler temperate zones. Sow in flats or plugs 8-12 weeks before spring field planting. In warmer zones (e.g. southern U.S.), can be sown direct in field. Cultivation similar to bell peppers, except longer, warmer season required (65-80 days). Easily killed by frost. Excess nitrogen feeding will reduce fruit production. Irrigation necessary in drier areas; can improve yields 6-fold.
Field spacing: 90-130cm between rows x 30-60cm within rows.
Yield: fresh fruit 8-15t/ha, dry fruit 2t/ha (year 1).
Pests: aphid, ground beetle, pepper weevil
Diseases: xanthomonas bacterial spot, anthracnose, and many others.
Buyers want: varies greatly depending on the market.
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Sowing rate: 10-25g/1000plants.
Planting: sow 10-12 weeks before sale. Sow in flats or plugs. Mostly sold in 4- or 6-packs in spring like bedding annuals, or in pots.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 3 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite, aphid
Diseases: few problems.
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Rosemary
(Rosmarinus officinalis ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (leaf); (herb);
Market size: Most commercial product is from wildcrafted sources. Cultivated acreage is 200 hectares (North America); world acreage unknown
Prospects: prices stable, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 1000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: light, well-drained; pH 6.0-7.5
Crop duration: 10-20 years
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Sowing rate: 1.5-3 kg/ha (direct), 0.2-0.6kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing not recommended because seeds are slow to germinate and seedlings are slow to establish. Sow in seedflats 20 weeks before field spring planting. Germination can be enhanced by exposing seedflat to 24-27°C for 1 week and then lower to 18°C for germination. Where rosemary is not hardy growers dig up plants and overwinter in cool greenhouses. Named cultivars must be grown from cuttings; seed only available for standard species.
Field spacing: 90cm between rows x 25-50cm within rows.
Yield: fresh herb 2000kg/ha (years 2-20).
Pests: no data
Diseases: root rot.
Buyers want: dried leaf minimum volatile oil 1.2%, maximum foreign matter 10%, maximum woody stems 2%, maximum ash 7%.
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Sowing rate: 10-15g/1000 plants.
Planting: sow in seedflats 22 weeks before sale in 10cm pots.
Seeds to finished plugs: 12 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 10 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, scale, mealybug
Diseases: powdery mildew.
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Sage
(Salvia officinalis ) |
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Market
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Products: (herb); (herb, sprouts); (herb);
Market size: 160,000 hectares (world), 2,400 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 125 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, rich, light or heavy, pH 6-6.5
Crop duration: 4-5 years
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Sowing rate: 5-15 kg/ha (direct), 0.5-2kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring or sow in plugs 8 weeks before field planting. Trim plants to 15 cm in early spring to encourage new shoots. 'Die-back' occurs in heavy soils that do not drain well.
Field spacing: 50-75cm between rows x 30-50cm within rows.
Yield: dresh herb 10-20t/ha, dry herb 2.5-5t/ha (years 2-5).
Pests: few problems with pests
Diseases: verticillium wilt, oidium powdery mildew.
Buyers want: minimum volatile oil 1.5%, maximum ash 8-12%, maximum foreign matter 3%.
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Sowing rate: 20-30g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or flats 12-14 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4-6 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite, mealybug
Diseases: damping-off, powdery mildew.
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St. Johnswort
(Hypericum perfoliatum ) |
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Market
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Products: (herb); (herb);
Market size: 2,400 hectares (world), 800 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices down, volume down
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Culture |
Seed density: 7,000-10,000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, dry, pH 6-7
Crop duration: 2-3 years
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Sowing rate: 1-1.5kg/ha (direct), 0.1-0.5kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: direct sowing has been tried with success, but seedlings are slow to establish and weed control is a problem. Sow direct in field in spring. Or, sow indirect in plugs 8 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 20-90cm between rows x 20-30cm within rows.
Yield: 1000-1200kg/ha (years 2-3).
Pests: chrysolina beetle, nematode
Diseases: colletotrichum anthracnose. Chrysolina beetle has become a serious problem is some areas after several years of cultivation. Serious anthracnose damage has been reported in areas where St. Johnswort has been cultivated for several years. There is evidence of a correlation between chrysolina infestation and anthracnose.
Buyers want: minimum 0.3% hypericin, maximum 5-8% ash, 2% foreign matter, 10% loss on drying.
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Sowing rate: 2g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs 10-12 weeks prior to sale. anthracnose disease (reddening of foliage and dieback) is a serious problem in plug production; avoid overwatering and watering late in day. Anthracnose spreads by unknown vector; may be insect or splashing water.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 2-4 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: colletotrichum anthracnose.
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Savory
(Satureja hortensis, S. montana) |
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Market
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Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 800 hectares (world), 320 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 1700-2600 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained
Crop duration: S. hortensis 1 year; S. montana 3-6 years
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Sowing rate: S. hortensis 6-20 kg/ha (direct); S. montana 6 kg/ha (direct), 0.2-1kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in spring. S. montana best sown in plugs 8 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: S. hortensis 15-90cm between rows x 15-20cm within rows; S. montana 30-60cm x 17-20cm.
Yield: S. hortensis dry herb 2500-5000kg/ha, oil 30kg/ha (year 1); S. montana dry herb 1-3t/ha (years 2-6).
Pests: few problems
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: No data.
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Sowing rate: 2-5g/1000plants.
Planting: S. hortensis can be sown direct in pots, 6 weeks before sale. Sow S. montana in plugs 12 weeks before sale.
Seeds to saleable plants: S. hortensis 6 weeks.
Seeds to finished plugs: S. montana 4-6 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: S. montana 8 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite, aphid
Diseases: few problems.
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Scullcap
(Scutellaria lateriflora, S. baicalensis) |
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Market
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Products: (herb – S. lateriflora, root – S. baicalensis);
Market size: 5,000 hectares (world), 400 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: S. lateriflora 3400; S. baicalensis 550 seeds/gram
Exposure: sun or partial shade.
Soil: fertile, damp, light, well-drained, pH 6-7
Crop duration: 3-4 years
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Sowing rate: S. lateriflora 1-1.5 kg/ha (direct), 0.1-1kg/ha (indirect); S. baicalensis 8-12 kg/ha (direct), 0.3-2kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: S. lateriflora best sown in plugs 8 weeks before field planting; herb harvested in 3-4 years. S. baicalensis best sown direct in field in spring; root harvested in 3-4 years in spring or autumn.
Field spacing: 15-60cm between rows x 15-30cm within rows.
Yield: no data (years 3-4).
Pests: no data
Diseases: no data.
Buyers want: presence of scutellarin in S. lateriflora, baicalin in S. baicalensis.
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Sowing rate: 5g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs 15 weeks before sale. Very sensitive to overwatering.
Seeds to finished plugs: 10-12 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4 weeks.
Pests: spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
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Sorrel
(Rumex acetosa, R. acetosella, R. scutatus ) |
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Market
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Products: (leaf); (leaf);
Market size: 400 hectares (world), 140 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: S. acetosa 1000; S. acetosella 2,200, S. scutatus 700 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun or partial shade
Soil: cool, moist, acidic
Crop duration: 2-3 years
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Sowing rate: S. acetosa 3kg/ha (direct), 0.5kg/ha; S. acetosella 2kg/ha (direct), 0.3kg/ha (indirect); S. scutatus 5kg/ha (direct), 1kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in spring. Or, sow in plugs 6-8 weeks before field planting. Flowering stocks should be removed in S. acetosa, or use non-flowering variety 'Profusion'.
Field spacing: 30-90cm between rows x 30cm within rows.
Yield: no data (years 1-3).
Pests: unidentified insect puncturing leaves in R. acetosa, slugs
Diseases: leaf spot, puccinia rust, aster yellows.
Buyers want: no data.
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Sowing rate: S. acetosa 5g/1000plants; S. acetosella 2g/1000plants; S. scutatus 7g/1000plants.
Planting: sow direct in pots 10 weeks before sale. Or, sow in plugs 10-12 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6-8weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 2-4 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, aphid, slugs
Diseases: few problems.
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Tarragon
(Artemisia dracunculus ) |
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Market
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Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 3,000 hectares (world), 200 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 6200 (russian variety is not recommended) seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: deep, well-drained, fertile, pH 6.5
Crop duration: 2-4 years
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Sowing rate: 0.1kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: seeds not recommended. Seed-grown russian variety does not have flavour. Best grown from vegetatatively-propagated stock.
Field spacing: 45-60cm between rows x 30cm within rows.
Yield: fresh herb 7-18t/ha (years 1-4), dry herb 1500-2600kg/ha (years 1-4).
Pests: puccinia rust
Diseases: few problems.
Buyers want: good green colour, good anise aroma.
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Sowing rate: 1g/1000plants.
Planting: seed not recommended; start with plugs.
Plugs to saleable plants: 7 weeks.
Pests: whitefly, spider mite
Diseases: few problems.
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Milk Thistle
(Silybum marianum ) |
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Market
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Products: (seed, herb)
Market size: 5,000 hectares (world), 500 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices up, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 42 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained
Crop duration: 1 year
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Sowing rate: 4-5 kg/ha (direct).
Planting: sow direct in field in spring when soil temperature remains above 10 C.
Field spacing: 70-80cm between rows x 20-30cm within rows.
Yield: 1.5t/ha (year 1).
Pests: tanymecus larva
Diseases: erysiphe powdery mildew, botrytis grey mold.
Buyers want: seed minimum 1% silymarin, maximum 2% foreign matter, maximum loss on drying 8%, maximum ash 8%.
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Thyme
(Thymus spp.) |
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Market
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Products: (herb); (herb); (herb);
Market size: 33,000 hectares (world), 2,400 ha (North America)
Prospects: prices stable, volume stable
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Culture |
Seed density: 3300-4000 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun
Soil: well-drained, light, fertile to poor, pH 6.5-7
Crop duration: 3-4 years
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Sowing rate: 0.5-1kg/ha (direct), 0.1-0.5kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow direct in spring in clean field, or sow in plugs 8-10 weeks before field planting. Winter mulch where lows reach -10 C.
Field spacing: 60-90cm between rows x 10-45cm within rows.
Yield: T. vulgaris fresh herb 5-6t/ha, dry herb 2t/ha (years 1-4).
Pests: tortrix lepidoptera, nematode
Diseases: puccinia rust, aecidium rust, alternaria blight, botrytis gray mold, rhizoctonia root rot.
Buyers want: dry herb minimum 1.2-1.5% volatile oil, 0.5% thymol, maximum 3-15% stem fragments, 2% foreign matter, 10% loss on drying, 10-15% ash.
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Sowing rate: 1-3g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs 12-14 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 6-8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4-6 weeks.
Pests: spider mite, scale, mealybug, whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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Valerian
(Valeriana officinalis) |
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Market
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Products: (root);
Market size: no data
Prospects: prices down, volume up
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Culture |
Seed density: 1200-1700 seeds/gram
Exposure: full sun or partial shade
Soil: tolerates most, but does best in heavy, rich, well-drained soils
Crop duration: 2 years
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Sowing rate: 1-3 kg/ha (direct), 0.4-1kg/ha (indirect).
Planting: sow in plugs 8 weeks before field planting.
Field spacing: 50-90cm between rows x 20-30cm within rows.
Yield: dry root 4t/ha (year 2).
Pests: myzus aphid, melitaea lepidoptera
Diseases: erysiphe powdery mildew, uromyces rust, ramularia leafspot, synchytrium gall, phoma blight, sclerotinia stemrot. Growers reporting unidentified fungal problem in Ontario.
Buyers want: minimum 0.5% volatile oil.
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Sowing rate: 10g/1000plants.
Planting: sow in plugs or seedflats 12-15 weeks before sale.
Seeds to finished plugs: 8 weeks.
Plugs to saleable plants: 4-7 weeks.
Pests: whitefly
Diseases: few problems.
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– Dried Production
– Fresh Production
– Oil Production
– Potted Plant Production
Back to ProGrower Herb List
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